{ "name": "The Map of Philosophy — canonical graph", "description": "Evidence-gated entities and relations used by the Traditions, Questions, and Methods views.", "schemaVersion": "3.0", "taxonomyVersion": "3.0", "applicationVersion": "0.7.0", "canonicalUrl": "https://map.ebarakos.com/graph.json", "entityTypes": [ "school-of-thought", "problem", "position", "method", "domain" ], "relationTypes": [ "influenced_by", "reacts_to", "revives", "synthesizes", "answers", "holds_position", "responds_to_problem", "specializes", "incompatible_with", "uses_method", "developed_from", "applied_to", "belongs_to_domain" ], "entityCount": 244, "relationCount": 656, "entities": [ { "id": "abductive-reasoning", "label": "Abductive Reasoning", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/abductive-reasoning/", "description": "Abductive reasoning develops or selects an explanatory hypothesis because it would explain the available evidence better than the live alternatives.", "methodFamily": "argumentative", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Identify what needs explaining", "text": "State the observation, pattern, or fact that calls for an account." }, { "title": "Generate live explanations", "text": "Form hypotheses that would make the evidence intelligible if they were true." }, { "title": "Compare explanatory merits", "text": "Assess fit with the evidence together with virtues such as simplicity, scope, and coherence." }, { "title": "Adopt a provisional hypothesis", "text": "Prefer or investigate the strongest explanation while keeping it open to testing and revision." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Abduction", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/" } ] }, { "id": "absolute-idealism", "label": "Absolute Idealism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/absolute-idealism/", "description": "Reality forms a single rational whole whose fundamental character is mental or spiritual.", "positionLevel": "family", "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Idealism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/idealism/" } ] }, { "id": "absolute-idealist-current", "label": "British Idealism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/absolute-idealist-current/", "description": "British Idealism is the movement that took up Hegel's view that reality as a whole forms a single, all-encompassing rational system — the Absolute — whose character is ultimately mental or spiritual. Green, Bradley and Bosanquet built their systems on it, and for a generation it was the dominant academic philosophy in Britain. Josiah Royce developed a closely related absolute idealism in the United States, which this entry treats as a counterpart rather than as part of the British movement. Moore and Russell broke with it around 1900, and that break is where analytic philosophy begins.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "nineteenth-century", "timePeriod": "c. 1865-1925 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "keyFigures": [ "F. H. Bradley", "T. H. Green", "Bernard Bosanquet", "J. M. E. McTaggart" ], "keyConcepts": [ "The Absolute", "Internal relations", "Coherence theory of truth", "Concrete universal", "Reality as thought" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "The Absolute", "text": "Reality is a single, all-inclusive, rational whole. Individual things, taken in isolation, are abstractions from that whole." }, { "title": "Internal Relations", "text": "Relations help constitute the things they relate rather than merely connecting already independent items." }, { "title": "Coherence Theory of Truth", "text": "Truth is understood through the coherence of beliefs within a comprehensive system." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Idealism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/idealism/" } ] }, { "id": "absurdism", "label": "Absurdism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/absurdism/", "description": "Absurdism begins with the confrontation between the human desire for meaning and the universe's silent indifference. Camus — who explicitly rejected the existentialist label — argued that this confrontation produces the absurd: not a property of the world alone nor of the mind alone, but of the clash between them. The absurd cannot be resolved, only lived. The proper response is neither suicide nor the 'philosophical suicide' of a leap of faith, but lucid revolt.", "formationKind": "intellectual-current", "era": "twentieth-century-plus", "timePeriod": "c. 1942-1960 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "aesthetic", "ethics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Albert Camus" ], "keyConcepts": [ "The absurd", "Revolt", "Myth of Sisyphus", "Rejection of philosophical suicide", "Living without appeal" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "The Absurd", "text": "The absurd arises from the gap between humanity's need for order, purpose, and meaning and the world's refusal to provide any. It is not despair but a clear-eyed recognition of the human condition — and it demands an equally clear-eyed response." }, { "title": "Revolt, Not Resignation", "text": "Camus's answer to the absurd is not passive acceptance but active revolt — continuing to live fully without appealing to a final or transcendent meaning." }, { "title": "Sisyphean Affirmation", "text": "The myth of Sisyphus, condemned to push a boulder uphill for eternity, becomes Camus's central image. In the moment Sisyphus walks back down the hill, conscious of his fate, he is superior to it. 'One must imagine Sisyphus happy.'" } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Albert Camus", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/camus/" } ] }, { "id": "academic-fallibilism", "label": "Academic Fallibilism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/academic-fallibilism/", "description": "When certainty is unavailable, critically examined persuasive impressions can guide rational inquiry and action without being treated as knowledge.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Cicero, Academica II.59, 99, 108 (acting by persuasive impressions without assent)" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Carneades, §4 (the dispute over Carneades' own commitments)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/carneades/" } ] }, { "id": "academic-skept", "label": "Academic Skepticism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/academic-skept/", "description": "Academic Skepticism emerged within Plato's Academy under Arcesilaus and Carneades and challenged the Stoic claim that some impressions guarantee their own truth. Carneades developed graded persuasive impressions to show how inquiry and action could proceed without a Stoic criterion of certainty. Ancient reports and modern interpreters disagree over whether he endorsed this account himself or offered it dialectically against the Stoics.", "formationKind": "school", "era": "classical", "timePeriod": "c. 266-84 BCE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "keyFigures": [ "Arcesilaus", "Carneades", "Cicero" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Persuasive impressions (endorsement disputed)", "Against the Stoic criterion", "Dialectical method" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Against the Stoic Criterion", "text": "Academic arguments deny that any sense-impression carries the self-guaranteeing mark of truth claimed by the Stoics. On a dialectical reading, these arguments expose consequences of Stoic premises without stating the Academics' own doctrine." }, { "title": "Persuasive Impressions", "text": "Carneades distinguished grades of persuasiveness and described how a person could examine and act on the strongest impressions. Whether this was his own doctrine or a dialectical reply to the Stoics is disputed." }, { "title": "Dialectical Method", "text": "The Academic Skeptics argued against every position without committing to any — using opponents' premises to generate contradictions." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Ancient Skepticism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism-ancient/" } ] }, { "id": "aesthetic", "label": "Aesthetics", "type": "domain", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/aesthetic/", "description": "Questions about art, beauty, expression, and judgment.", "domains": [], "sources": [ { "citation": "Controlled domain vocabulary (docs/taxonomy.md)" } ] }, { "id": "aesthetic-formalism", "label": "Aesthetic Formalism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/aesthetic-formalism/", "description": "Something is a work of art in virtue of its form — the arrangement of lines, colours, and relations that provokes aesthetic emotion — and not in virtue of what it represents.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "aesthetic" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Clive Bell, Art (1914), Part I ch. 1" } ] }, { "id": "analytic", "label": "Analytic Philosophy", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/analytic/", "description": "Analytic philosophy is a broad and evolving tradition associated with explicit argument, conceptual clarity, and careful use of logic. Its practitioners have not shared one primary method: formal and conceptual analysis, attention to ordinary language, engagement with the sciences, reflective equilibrium, and thought experiments have all played important roles in different periods and fields. The analysis of language has been central to influential strands without defining the whole tradition.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "twentieth-century-plus", "timePeriod": "c. 1900 CE onward", "regions": [ "europe", "north-america" ], "domains": [ "language", "logic" ], "keyFigures": [ "Gottlob Frege", "Bertrand Russell", "Ludwig Wittgenstein", "W. V. O. Quine", "Saul Kripke" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Logical analysis", "Philosophy of language", "Conceptual clarity", "Thought experiments" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Changing Methods", "text": "Analytic philosophers have used different combinations of formal logic, conceptual analysis, ordinary-language inquiry, scientific evidence, and case-based argument. No single technique defines all analytic philosophy." }, { "title": "Logical Analysis", "text": "Russell and Frege developed formal logic as a tool for philosophical analysis — revealing the true logical form of propositions hidden beneath their grammatical surface." }, { "title": "Language and Meaning", "text": "Work by Russell, Frege, and both the early and later Wittgenstein made language central to major parts of the tradition, but with sharply different accounts of logical form, meaning, and use." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Analytic Philosophy", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/analytic/" }, { "citation": "Hans-Johann Glock, What Is Analytic Philosophy? (Cambridge University Press, 2008)" } ] }, { "id": "anarchism", "label": "Anarchism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/anarchism/", "description": "Anarchism names diverse historical traditions of anti-authoritarian political thought and practice that emerged in the nineteenth century. These traditions criticize centralized, hierarchical power and explore forms of social organization based on freedom and cooperation, but they disagree about whether every state is necessarily illegitimate, whether any authority or coercion can be justified, and whether change should come through reform, direct action, or revolution. Proudhon, Bakunin, Kropotkin, and Goldman developed distinct rather than interchangeable versions of this critique.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "nineteenth-century", "timePeriod": "c. 1840 CE onward", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "political" ], "keyFigures": [ "Pierre-Joseph Proudhon", "Mikhail Bakunin", "Peter Kropotkin", "Emma Goldman" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Critiques of state authority", "Opposition to domination and hierarchy", "Mutual aid", "Direct action", "Voluntary association" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "State and Authority", "text": "Some anarchists argue that no state can possess legitimate authority; others make a contingent case against existing states or allow that limited authority could meet a demanding burden of justification." }, { "title": "Hierarchy and Domination", "text": "Anarchist traditions extend criticism beyond government to different forms of domination and oppressive hierarchy, but they do not all draw the boundary of justified authority in the same place." }, { "title": "Mutual Aid", "text": "Kropotkin argued that cooperation is an important factor in evolution and social flourishing, offering it as an alternative to accounts that make competition the sole driver." }, { "title": "Political Practice", "text": "Voluntary association, direct action, and prefigurative organization are important anarchist approaches, while anarchists continue to disagree about nonviolence, revolutionary force, and gradual reform." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Anarchism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/anarchism/" } ] }, { "id": "anthropocentric-moral-standing", "label": "Anthropocentric Moral Standing", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/anthropocentric-moral-standing/", "description": "Only human beings have direct moral standing; duties concerning nonhuman nature derive from its effects on present or future human interests.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "ethics", "nature" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Bryan G. Norton, 'Environmental Ethics and Weak Anthropocentrism', Environmental Ethics 6 (1984), pp. 131–148" } ] }, { "id": "aristotelianism", "label": "Peripatetic School", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/aristotelianism/", "description": "The Peripatetic School is the philosophical community that began when Aristotle established the Lyceum in Athens in 335 BCE. Its members investigated subjects ranging from logic and metaphysics to ethics, politics, and biology. After an early decline, a text-centered Aristotelian commentary tradition revived in the first century BCE and culminated around 200 CE with Alexander of Aphrodisias, the last major ancient commentator committed strictly to Aristotelian philosophy.", "formationKind": "school", "era": "classical", "timePeriod": "c. 335 BCE - 200 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "ethics", "logic", "metaphysics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Aristotle", "Theophrastus", "Alexander of Aphrodisias" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Hylomorphism", "Four causes", "Eudaimonia", "The golden mean", "Logic (syllogism)" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Four Causes", "text": "To explain anything fully requires identifying its material, formal, efficient, and final causes — what it's made of, its structure, what produced it, and its purpose." }, { "title": "Hylomorphism", "text": "Aristotle analyzes perceptible substances as compounds of matter (*hyle*) and form (*morphe*), locating their forms in the substances rather than in a separate Platonic realm." }, { "title": "Eudaimonia and Virtue", "text": "The good life consists in flourishing (eudaimonia), achieved by developing virtues — stable dispositions to act in accordance with reason, hitting the mean between extremes." }, { "title": "Formal Logic", "text": "Aristotle's logical works contain the earliest surviving formal study of logic. Their account of syllogistic deduction shaped later ancient, Arabic, and Latin logical traditions." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Aristotle, §1 (Aristotle established the Lyceum in 335 BCE)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle/" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Alexander of Aphrodisias, introduction and §1.1 (the last strictly Aristotelian commentator, active in the late second and early third century CE)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/alexander-aphrodisias/" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Aristotle's Logic, §§1–3", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/" } ] }, { "id": "atheism", "label": "Atheism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/atheism/", "description": "No God exists; the universe and its order require no supernatural explanation.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "religion" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Atheism and Agnosticism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/" } ] }, { "id": "atomism", "label": "Atomism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/atomism/", "description": "Ancient Atomism, developed by Leucippus and Democritus, proposed that all reality consists of indivisible particles (atoms) moving through void (empty space). This materialist worldview explained all phenomena — from perception to cosmology — through the mechanical interactions of atoms, without recourse to purpose or design.", "formationKind": "intellectual-current", "era": "classical", "timePeriod": "c. 460-370 BCE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "metaphysics", "nature" ], "keyFigures": [ "Leucippus", "Democritus" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Atoms and void", "Mechanical causation", "Infinite worlds", "Materialism" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Atoms and Void", "text": "Reality consists entirely of an infinite number of indivisible, eternal particles (atoms) differing only in shape, size, and arrangement, moving through empty space." }, { "title": "Mechanical Causation", "text": "Everything occurs by necessity through the collision and combination of atoms. There is no teleology or design — only matter in motion." }, { "title": "Cheerfulness (Euthymia)", "text": "Democritus held that the goal of life is tranquility of mind, achieved through moderation and an understanding of the natural world." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Ancient Atomism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atomism-ancient/" } ] }, { "id": "averroism", "label": "Averroism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/averroism/", "description": "Averroism arose from the reception of Ibn Rushd's commentaries on Aristotle and became associated in Latin Europe with the autonomy of philosophical inquiry, the eternity of the world, and the unity of the intellect. On Ibn Rushd's mature account, the material (or possible) intellect is a single, separate substance shared by all human beings. The movement was also charged with a 'double truth' doctrine, although that label is a disputed later characterization rather than a straightforward teaching of Ibn Rushd or every Latin Averroist.", "formationKind": "intellectual-current", "era": "high-medieval", "timePeriod": "c. 1180-1600 CE", "regions": [ "europe", "middle-east" ], "domains": [ "epistemology", "metaphysics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Ibn Rushd (Averroes)", "Siger of Brabant", "Boethius of Dacia" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Unity of the intellect", "Double truth theory (attributed)", "Eternity of the world", "Autonomy of philosophy", "Aristotelian naturalism" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Autonomy of Philosophy", "text": "Averroes argued that philosophy has its own domain and methods, independent of theology. Where they overlap, both pursue truth — contradiction between them is only apparent." }, { "title": "Unity of the Intellect", "text": "In Ibn Rushd's mature interpretation of Aristotle, the material (or possible) intellect is single, separate, and shared by all humans. Scholars dispute exactly what this account entails for personal immortality; it puts ordinary individual survival under pressure, but the consequence is not settled." }, { "title": "Eternity of the World", "text": "Following Aristotle, Averroes argued that the world has no temporal beginning — it is eternal, sustained in existence by God as its eternal cause." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Ibn Rushd [Averroes]", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-rushd/" }, { "citation": "Pilar Herráiz Oliva, 'Towards a New Methodology for Natural Philosophy: Latin Averroism Revisited' (Mediterranea 6, 2021)", "url": "https://doi.org/10.21071/mijtk.v6i.12947" } ] }, { "id": "beauty-art", "label": "The Definition of Art", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/beauty-art/", "description": "What makes something a work of art?", "domains": [ "aesthetic" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Definition of Art", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/art-definition/" } ] }, { "id": "bergsonian-intuitionism", "label": "Bergsonian Intuitionism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/bergsonian-intuitionism/", "description": "Bergsonian Intuitionism holds that the deepest truths of reality — especially time, consciousness, and life — cannot be grasped by analytical intellect alone but require a direct, sympathetic mode of knowing called intuition. Bergson argued that science and rational analysis spatialize time into discrete units, missing the continuous flow of lived experience he called durée (duration).", "formationKind": "intellectual-current", "era": "nineteenth-century", "timePeriod": "c. 1889-1941 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "epistemology", "mind" ], "keyFigures": [ "Henri Bergson" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Duration (durée)", "Élan vital", "Intuition vs. intellect", "Creative evolution", "Immediate experience" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Duration (Durée)", "text": "Real time is not the clock-time of physics but a continuous, indivisible flow of qualitative change. We experience duration directly in consciousness, where past and present interpenetrate rather than standing side by side." }, { "title": "Intuition vs. Intellect", "text": "The intellect evolved to manipulate matter and solve practical problems — it works by dividing, categorizing, and spatializing. Intuition, by contrast, grasps reality from within, apprehending the whole without fragmenting it." }, { "title": "Élan Vital", "text": "Life is driven by a creative impulse that cannot be reduced to mechanism or finality. Evolution is not predetermined but genuinely creative, branching unpredictably as the élan vital encounters resistance from matter." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Henri Bergson", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bergson/" } ] }, { "id": "biocentric-moral-standing", "label": "Biocentric Moral Standing", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/biocentric-moral-standing/", "description": "Every living organism has direct moral standing because it has a good of its own that can be promoted or harmed, whether or not it is sentient.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "ethics", "nature" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Paul W. Taylor, Respect for Nature: A Theory of Environmental Ethics (1986), ch. 3" } ] }, { "id": "buddhism", "label": "Buddhism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/buddhism/", "description": "Buddhism, founded by Siddhartha Gautama, diagnoses the human condition as pervaded by suffering (dukkha) caused by craving and ignorance. The path to liberation runs through ethical conduct, meditation, and wisdom — culminating in nirvana, the cessation of suffering. Its radical teaching of anatta (no-self) challenges the very notion of a permanent, unchanging soul.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "classical", "timePeriod": "c. 500 BCE onward", "regions": [ "south-asia" ], "domains": [ "ethics", "mind", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha)", "Ananda", "Sariputta", "Moggallana" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Four Noble Truths", "Eightfold Path", "Anatta (no-self)", "Dependent origination", "Nirvana" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Four Noble Truths", "text": "Life involves suffering (dukkha); suffering arises from craving (tanha); suffering can cease; the path to cessation is the Noble Eightfold Path." }, { "title": "Anatta (No-Self)", "text": "There is no permanent, unchanging self or soul. What we call 'self' is a constantly changing stream of physical and mental processes (the five aggregates)." }, { "title": "Dependent Origination", "text": "Conditioned phenomena arise and cease in dependence on specific causes and conditions. Applied to suffering, this teaching explains both its continuation and the possibility of its cessation." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Mark Siderits, Buddhism as Philosophy: An Introduction (Hackett, 2007)" } ] }, { "id": "buddhist-mindfulness-meditation", "label": "Buddhist Mindfulness Meditation", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/buddhist-mindfulness-meditation/", "description": "Buddhist mindfulness meditation systematically attends to body, feeling, mental states, and phenomena as part of a path toward insight and release.", "methodFamily": "contemplative", "domains": [ "ethics" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Attend to the body", "text": "Observe breathing, posture, activity, and bodily processes as bodily processes." }, { "title": "Attend to feeling", "text": "Notice pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral feeling without immediately grasping or resisting it." }, { "title": "Attend to mind", "text": "Recognize the presence or absence of states such as desire, aversion, distraction, and concentration." }, { "title": "Attend to phenomena", "text": "Examine recurring patterns and teachings that organize experience and liberation." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Bhikkhu Anālayo, Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization (Windhorse, 2003)" } ] }, { "id": "bundle-theory", "label": "Bundle Theory", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/bundle-theory/", "description": "There is no persisting self, only a bundle of ever-changing perceptions; what we call personal identity is a fiction the mind ascribes to them on the basis of resemblance and succession.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "mind" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, I.4.6" } ] }, { "id": "capabilities-deprivation", "label": "Capability Deprivation", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/capabilities-deprivation/", "description": "A social structure is unjust when it leaves people below a threshold level of the central human capabilities, whatever resources it distributes to them.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "political" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom (1999), chs. 1 and 3, which assesses arrangements by the substantive freedoms people have rather than by the resources they hold" }, { "citation": "Martha C. Nussbaum, Creating Capabilities: The Human Development Approach (2011), ch. 2, listing the ten central capabilities" } ] }, { "id": "causal-historical-reference", "label": "Causal-Historical Reference", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/causal-historical-reference/", "description": "A term refers to what it does because of a causal chain running back to an initial naming, not because speakers associate a description that the referent satisfies.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "language" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Saul Kripke, Naming and Necessity (1980), Lecture II" } ] }, { "id": "causal-powers", "label": "Causal Powers", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/causal-powers/", "description": "Causation is the exercise of real powers that things have in virtue of their natures, so the connection holds in the world rather than in our expectations.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Rom Harré and E. H. Madden, Causal Powers: A Theory of Natural Necessity (1975)" } ] }, { "id": "causality", "label": "The Nature of Causation", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/causality/", "description": "What makes one event a cause of another?", "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Metaphysics of Causation", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/causation-metaphysics/" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Regularity and Inferential Theories of Causation", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/causation-regularity/" } ] }, { "id": "change-being", "label": "Change and Being", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/change-being/", "description": "Is reality fundamentally stable, changing, processual, or both?", "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "G. S. Kirk, J. E. Raven and M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers (2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1983)" } ] }, { "id": "cognition-structure", "label": "Space, Time, and Experience", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/cognition-structure/", "description": "Are space and time features of things as they are independently of us, or forms through which human sensibility presents them?", "domains": [ "epistemology", "metaphysics", "mind" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, A26/B42 and A369" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Kant's Transcendental Idealism, §§1–3", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/" } ] }, { "id": "cognitive-meaningfulness", "label": "Cognitive Meaningfulness", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/cognitive-meaningfulness/", "description": "What makes a sentence cognitively meaningful rather than meaningless?", "domains": [ "language" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Theories of Meaning", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/meaning/" } ] }, { "id": "coherence-theory", "label": "Coherence Theory of Truth", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/coherence-theory/", "description": "A proposition is true if and only if it coheres with a comprehensive, consistent system of beliefs.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Coherence Theory of Truth", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-coherence/" }, { "citation": "Brand Blanshard, The Nature of Thought (1939)" } ] }, { "id": "compatibilism", "label": "Compatibilism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/compatibilism/", "description": "Free will is compatible with causal determinism: an action is free when it flows from the agent's own reasons, desires, or character, whether or not those are 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"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Xunzi, §3", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/xunzi/" } ] }, { "id": "confucianism", "label": "Confucianism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/confucianism/", "description": "Confucianism is a diverse, continuing tradition formed around teachings attributed to Confucius and the texts and practices that later interpreters connected with him. 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Every theory remains open to revision; certainty is neither available nor required for rational inquiry. Lakatos extended the approach to whole research programmes, and Bartley pushed Popper's fallibilism toward a comprehensive critical philosophy. The school did not end with Popper's death: later philosophers continue to criticize and develop its account of science, knowledge, and inquiry, sometimes retaining central Popperian insights while rejecting others.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "twentieth-century-plus", "timePeriod": "c. 1934 CE onward", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "epistemology", "science" ], "keyFigures": [ "Karl Popper", "Imre Lakatos", "W. W. Bartley" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Falsifiability", "Conjectures and refutations", "Fallibilism" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Falsifiability", "text": "A theory earns scientific status by forbidding certain observations — if those observations occur, the theory is refuted. Theories immune to refutation are not thereby confirmed; they are unscientific." }, { "title": "Conjectures and Refutations", "text": "Science proceeds by proposing bold conjectures and subjecting them to the most severe tests available, retaining only what survives — not by inductively generalizing from confirming instances." }, { "title": "Fallibilism", "text": "No theory, however well corroborated, is ever proven true. All knowledge remains provisional and open to future refutation." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Karl Popper", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/popper/" }, { "citation": "Darrell P. 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"description": "Mind and matter — or soul and body — are two irreducible kinds of thing, neither reducible to the other.", "positionLevel": "family", "domains": [], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Dualism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/" } ] }, { "id": "ecocentric-holism", "label": "Ecocentric Holism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/ecocentric-holism/", "description": "The biotic community as an ecological whole is an object of direct moral concern, and preserving its integrity can outweigh the interests of individual members.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "ethics", "nature" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Aldo Leopold, 'The Land Ethic', in A Sand County Almanac (1949)" } ] }, { "id": "egalitarianism", "label": "Egalitarianism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/egalitarianism/", "description": "Justice requires treating persons as equals — distributing 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Ma'at linked truth, justice, right action, and the ordered world, while instructions and funerary texts addressed social conduct, death, and relations with the divine. Whether this corpus should be called philosophy, wisdom literature, religious thought, or some combination remains a matter of how philosophy is defined across cultures.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "ancient", "timePeriod": "c. 3000-300 BCE", "regions": [ "africa" ], "domains": [ "metaphysics", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Ptahhotep", "Amenemope" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Ma'at (cosmic order)", "Ka, ba, and akh (aspects of personhood)", "Afterlife judgment", "Divine kingship" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Ma'at", "text": "Ma'at joined ideas of truth, justice, right conduct, and cosmic and social order. Egyptian moral instruction framed good action as sustaining that order." }, { "title": "Personhood and Afterlife", "text": "Mortuary texts distinguish the ka, ba, and akh among several aspects of a person. 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S. Kirk, J. E. Raven and M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers (2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1983)" } ] }, { "id": "empirical-inquiry", "label": "Empirical Inquiry", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/empirical-inquiry/", "description": "Empirical inquiry grounds and revises philosophical claims through observation, experience, and evidence about how the world or human cognition actually works.", "methodFamily": "empirical", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Frame an experience-sensitive claim", "text": "Identify what observation or experience could bear on the issue." }, { "title": "Gather evidence", "text": "Attend to perception, reflection, records, or relevant findings." }, { "title": "Compare claim and evidence", "text": "Ask what the evidence supports, underdetermines, or conflicts with." }, { "title": "Revise and repeat", "text": "Modify the claim or inquiry in response to what is observed." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Rationalism vs. Empiricism, §1.2", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/" } ] }, { "id": "empiricism", "label": "British Empiricism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/empiricism/", "description": "British Empiricism holds that all knowledge ultimately derives from sensory experience. Locke argued the mind begins as a blank slate (tabula rasa), Berkeley pushed this to idealism (to be is to be perceived), and Hume drew radical skeptical conclusions — undermining causation, induction, and the self, and awakening Kant from his 'dogmatic slumber.'", "formationKind": "intellectual-current", "era": "early-modern", "timePeriod": "c. 1600-1750 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "keyFigures": [ "John Locke", "George Berkeley", "David Hume", "Francis Bacon" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Tabula rasa", "Impressions and ideas", "Problem of induction", "No innate ideas", "Empirical method" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Tabula Rasa", "text": "Locke's image: the mind at birth is a blank slate. All ideas come from sensation (external experience) or reflection (internal experience). There are no innate ideas." }, { "title": "Hume's Fork", "text": "All genuine propositions are either 'relations of ideas' (mathematics, logic — certain but empty) or 'matters of fact' (empirical — informative but uncertain). Everything else is sophistry." }, { "title": "Problem of Induction", "text": "Hume showed that no amount of past experience logically guarantees future events. That the sun has risen every day gives no logical proof it will rise tomorrow." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, British Empiricism", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/british-empiricism/" } ] }, { "id": "environmental", "label": "Environmental Ethics", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/environmental/", "description": "Environmental Ethics challenges the anthropocentric assumption that only humans have intrinsic moral value. Leopold's 'land ethic' extended moral consideration to ecosystems, Naess's 'deep ecology' argued that all living beings have intrinsic worth, and ecofeminists like Plumwood linked the domination of nature to the domination of women and indigenous peoples.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "twentieth-century-plus", "timePeriod": "c. 1949 CE onward", "regions": [ "north-america", "europe" ], "domains": [ "ethics", "nature" ], "keyFigures": [ "Aldo Leopold", "Arne Naess", "Rachel Carson", "Val Plumwood", "Holmes Rolston III" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Deep ecology", "Intrinsic value of nature", "Land ethic", "Biocentrism", "Ecological interconnection" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Intrinsic Value of Nature", "text": "Nature has value in itself, not merely as a resource for human use. Rivers, forests, and species deserve moral consideration independent of their utility." }, { "title": "Deep Ecology", "text": "Naess distinguished 'shallow' environmentalism (protecting nature for human benefit) from 'deep' ecology (recognizing the equal right of all life forms to flourish)." }, { "title": "Land Ethic", "text": "Leopold: 'A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise.'" } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Environmental Ethics", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-environmental/" } ] }, { "id": "epicureanism", "label": "Epicureanism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/epicureanism/", "description": "Epicureanism is the school Epicurus founded in the Garden at Athens around 306 BCE, and which survived in the Roman world into the third century CE. It identifies pleasure (hedone) as the highest good, but this is emphatically not hedonistic excess — the greatest pleasure is ataraxia, the absence of mental disturbance. Epicurus taught that the universe is composed of atoms and void, the gods do not intervene in human affairs, and death is simply the dissolution of atoms and therefore nothing to fear.", "formationKind": "school", "era": "classical", "timePeriod": "c. 306 BCE - 270 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "ethics", "metaphysics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Epicurus", "Metrodorus", "Lucretius" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Pleasure as the highest good", "Ataraxia (tranquility)", "Atomic physics", "Death is nothing to us" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Ataraxia", "text": "The goal of life is tranquility — freedom from anxiety (ataraxia) and bodily pain (aponia). Simple pleasures, friendship, and philosophical contemplation are the path." }, { "title": "Death is Nothing", "text": "'Where death is, I am not; where I am, death is not.' Since we cannot experience death, fearing it is irrational." }, { "title": "Atomic Swerve", "text": "Atoms occasionally swerve unpredictably, introducing indeterminacy into the cosmos and grounding human free will against strict determinism." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Epicurus", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epicurus/" } ] }, { "id": "epistemic-empiricism", "label": "Empiricism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/epistemic-empiricism/", "description": "Sense experience is the ultimate source of substantive knowledge and concepts.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Rationalism vs. Empiricism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/" } ] }, { "id": "epistemic-rationalism", "label": "Rationalism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/epistemic-rationalism/", "description": "Reason can provide substantive knowledge or concepts independently of sense experience.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Rationalism vs. Empiricism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/" } ] }, { "id": "epistemology", "label": "Epistemology", "type": "domain", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/epistemology/", "description": "Questions about knowledge, justification, inquiry, and belief.", "domains": [], "sources": [ { "citation": "Controlled domain vocabulary (docs/taxonomy.md)" } ] }, { "id": "ethics", "label": "Ethics", "type": "domain", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/ethics/", "description": "Questions about value, action, meaning, and flourishing.", "domains": [], "sources": [ { "citation": "Controlled domain vocabulary (docs/taxonomy.md)" } ] }, { "id": "examination-of-impressions", "label": "Examination of Impressions", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/examination-of-impressions/", "description": "Examination of impressions pauses before assent to test the judgment carried by an appearance and to distinguish what depends on one's agency from what does not.", "methodFamily": "contemplative", "domains": [], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Notice the impression", "text": "Register the appearance before treating it as a settled fact or value." }, { "title": "State its judgment", "text": "Make explicit what the impression says is good, bad, threatening, or necessary." }, { "title": "Test control and reason", "text": "Ask what depends on one's agency and whether the judgment survives examination." }, { "title": "Give or withhold assent", "text": "Accept, revise, or reject the impression's claim before acting on it." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Epictetus, Discourses I.20 and III.12; Enchiridion 1 and 20" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Epictetus", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epictetus/" } ] }, { "id": "existence-of-god", "label": "The Existence of God", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/existence-of-god/", "description": "Does a God exist, and what would count as evidence either way?", "domains": [ "religion" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Philosophy of Religion", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philosophy-religion/" } ] }, { "id": "existential-meaning", "label": "Existential Meaning", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/existential-meaning/", "description": "Meaning is not found but made by free existence.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "ethics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism Is a Humanism (1946)" } ] }, { "id": "existential-nihilism", "label": "Existential Nihilism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/existential-nihilism/", "description": "Life has no intrinsic meaning or value.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "ethics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Nihilism", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/nihilism/" } ] }, { "id": "existentialism", "label": "Existentialism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/existentialism/", "description": "Existentialism names a varied movement whose figures begin from concrete, situated existence rather than a detached theory of human beings as fixed substances. Across deep disagreements about religion, ethics, and the scope of freedom, they examine self-making, responsibility, anxiety, finitude, and the problem of living authentically. Sartre, in particular, formulated \"existence precedes essence,\" described human freedom in radical terms, and analyzed self-deception as bad faith.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "twentieth-century-plus", "timePeriod": "c. 1840-1980 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "ethics", "mind" ], "keyFigures": [ "Soren Kierkegaard", "Jean-Paul Sartre", "Simone de Beauvoir", "Martin Heidegger", "Karl Jaspers" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Existence precedes essence (Sartre)", "Radical freedom (Sartre)", "Authenticity", "Anxiety (Angst)", "Bad faith (Sartre)", "The absurd" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Sartre on Existence and Freedom", "text": "Sartre argued that people are not born with a predetermined essence and must define themselves through choices made within the limits of their situation. His language of radical freedom does not erase embodiment, history, or other features of facticity." }, { "title": "Sartrean Bad Faith", "text": "Sartre used this term for self-deception that denies either freedom or the facts and limits of one's situation, as when a person treats a social role as a complete and fixed identity." }, { "title": "Authenticity", "text": "Existentialists used different accounts of authenticity, but commonly opposed passive conformity and asked how a person can own a situated life in the face of anxiety, mortality, and responsibility." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Existentialism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/" } ] }, { "id": "exploitation-account", "label": "Exploitation", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/exploitation-account/", "description": "A social structure is unjust when its ordinary workings transfer the fruits of one group's labour to another, however voluntary each transaction within it appears.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "political" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Karl Marx, Capital vol. I (1867), Part III chs. 7–9, on surplus value as unpaid labour appropriated through an exchange that is formally free" } ] }, { "id": "expression-theory-of-art", "label": "Expression Theory of Art", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/expression-theory-of-art/", "description": "Art is essentially the imaginative expression of the artist's emotion, rather than the imitation of nature or the following of rules.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "aesthetic" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "M. H. Abrams, The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition (Oxford University Press, 1953)" } ] }, { "id": "external-world", "label": "Knowledge of the External World", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/external-world/", "description": "Can we know that a mind-independent external world exists?", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Skepticism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism/" } ] }, { "id": "external-world-skepticism", "label": "External-World Skepticism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/external-world-skepticism/", "description": "We cannot know that an external world exists, because no experience rules out that we are dreaming or being deceived.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, Meditation I" } ] }, { "id": "falsification-testing", "label": "Falsification Testing", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/falsification-testing/", "description": "Falsification testing derives a risky prediction from a theory and looks for the observation that would refute it, treating survival of serious attempts at refutation as the only support a theory can earn.", "methodFamily": "empirical", "domains": [ "epistemology", "science" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "State the theory so it forbids something", "text": "Formulate the claim precisely enough that some observable outcome is ruled out." }, { "title": "Derive a risky prediction", "text": "Identify an outcome the theory requires but that is improbable on background knowledge alone, so the theory is exposed if it is wrong." }, { "title": "Seek the refuting observation", "text": "Design the severest test available rather than collecting agreeable examples." }, { "title": "Corroborate or abandon", "text": "Treat survival as provisional standing, and treat a refutation as grounds to revise or drop the theory rather than to rescue it with an ad hoc amendment." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Karl Popper, §3", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/popper/" } ] }, { "id": "falsificationism", "label": "Falsificationism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/falsificationism/", "description": "A theory is scientific only if it makes predictions that could in principle be refuted by observation.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "epistemology", "science" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Karl Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1959), ch. 1" } ] }, { "id": "feminist-phil", "label": "Feminist Philosophy", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/feminist-phil/", "description": "Feminist philosophy interrogates the ways gender shapes knowledge, ethics, politics, and experience. Its roots reach back to Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) and John Stuart Mill's The Subjection of Women (1869). In the twentieth century, de Beauvoir's existentialist claim that 'one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman' catalyzed new waves of feminist thought. Feminist thinkers have exposed how philosophical traditions have marginalized women's perspectives, and developed new frameworks — from standpoint epistemology to the ethics of care — that take seriously the situated, embodied nature of knowing and acting.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "twentieth-century-plus", "timePeriod": "c. 1792 CE onward", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "epistemology", "ethics", "political" ], "keyFigures": [ "Mary Wollstonecraft", "Simone de Beauvoir", "Judith Butler", "bell hooks", "Luce Irigaray", "Martha Nussbaum" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Gender as construct", "Intersectionality", "Ethics of care", "Standpoint epistemology", "Performativity" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Gender as Construct", "text": "De Beauvoir argued that femininity is not a biological given but a social construction. Butler radicalized this insight, arguing that gender is performative — constituted through repeated acts rather than expressing an inner essence." }, { "title": "Intersectionality", "text": "Coined by Kimberle Crenshaw, this concept insists that gender cannot be understood in isolation from race, class, sexuality, and other axes of oppression. bell hooks and other Black feminist thinkers showed that mainstream feminism often universalized the experience of white, middle-class women." }, { "title": "Ethics of Care", "text": "Carol Gilligan and Nel Noddings challenged the dominance of abstract, rule-based ethics (Kantian and utilitarian) by foregrounding care, relationships, and responsiveness to particular others as central moral concerns." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Feminist Philosophy", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminist-philosophy/" } ] }, { "id": "fitting-fulfillment", "label": "Fitting Fulfillment", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/fitting-fulfillment/", "description": "A life is meaningful when a person is actively engaged in projects of independent worth, so meaning requires both that they care and that the object deserves it.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "ethics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Susan Wolf, Meaning in Life and Why It Matters (2010)" } ] }, { "id": "formalization", "label": "Formalization", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/formalization/", "description": "Formalization translates claims, arguments, or theories into an explicit logical or mathematical representation so that their structure can be tested with formal tools.", "methodFamily": "formal", "domains": [ "language" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Select the target", "text": "Identify the claims or inferential structure that the representation must preserve." }, { "title": "Choose a formal language", "text": "Use a logical or mathematical system expressive enough for the relevant distinctions." }, { "title": "Translate explicitly", "text": "Represent the premises, conclusion, operators, and assumptions in that system." }, { "title": "Test the representation", "text": "Derive consequences, search for countermodels, or check consistency and validity." }, { "title": "Compare and revise", "text": "Return to the original argument to see whether the formal result depends on a disputed translation." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Logical Truth, §2.1", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/" }, { "citation": "Robert Michels, 'The Formalization of Arguments: An Overview,' Argumenta 6, no. 1 (2020)", "url": "https://philpapers.org/archive/MICFOA-2.pdf" } ] }, { "id": "free-will", "label": "Free Will", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/free-will/", "description": "Are human actions causally determined, and can people be free and morally responsible if they are?", "domains": [ "ethics", "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Free Will", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/freewill/" } ] }, { "id": "french-enlightenment", "label": "French Enlightenment", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/french-enlightenment/", "description": "The French Enlightenment applied critical reason to religion, government, and society, seeking to replace inherited authority with principles that could withstand rational scrutiny. Voltaire attacked religious intolerance and the abuses of church and crown, Diderot and d'Alembert's Encyclopédie gathered and disseminated secular knowledge, and Rousseau and Montesquieu reimagined the foundations of political legitimacy.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "enlightenment", "timePeriod": "c. 1715-1789 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "epistemology", "political" ], "keyFigures": [ "Voltaire", "Denis Diderot", "Jean-Jacques Rousseau", "Montesquieu" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Reason and criticism", "Religious toleration", "Progress", "Encyclopédie" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Reason and Criticism", "text": "Every institution — religious, political, social — must justify itself before the tribunal of reason rather than rest on tradition or revealed authority alone." }, { "title": "Religious Toleration", "text": "Voltaire's campaigns against intolerance and judicial abuse argued that liberty of conscience is a precondition of a just society, not a threat to it." }, { "title": "The Encyclopédie", "text": "Diderot and d'Alembert's vast collaborative project aimed to compile and popularize human knowledge, treating the spread of reason itself as an engine of progress." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Enlightenment", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/" } ] }, { "id": "genealogy", "label": "Genealogy", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/genealogy/", "description": "Genealogy reconstructs how values, concepts, identities, or practices emerged through contingent struggles, institutions, and relations of power.", "methodFamily": "critical-interpretive", "domains": [ "political" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Select a present practice", "text": "Begin with a value, institution, identity, or category that now appears settled." }, { "title": "Reject a single pure origin", "text": "Look for heterogeneous beginnings, accidents, conflicts, and reversals." }, { "title": "Trace embodied practices", "text": "Examine the institutions, disciplines, and techniques through which the object took shape." }, { "title": "Diagnose present stakes", "text": "Show how that history still organizes what can be thought, done, or contested." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Friedrich Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morality, Preface and First Essay" }, { "citation": "Michel Foucault, 'Nietzsche, Genealogy, History' (1971)" } ] }, { "id": "german-idealism", "label": "German Idealism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/german-idealism/", "description": "German Idealism radicalized Kant's transcendental philosophy, arguing that reality is ultimately constituted by mind or Spirit (Geist). Fichte derived the entire world from the self-positing activity of the Ego, Schelling sought the identity of nature and spirit, and Hegel developed the most comprehensive system: reality is the self-unfolding of Absolute Spirit through dialectical development in history.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "nineteenth-century", "timePeriod": "c. 1780-1831 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "aesthetic", "metaphysics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Johann Gottlieb Fichte", "Friedrich Schelling", "Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Dialectic", "Absolute Spirit", "Self-positing ego", "Nature philosophy", "History as progress" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Hegel's Dialectic", "text": "Thought and reality develop through contradiction and resolution. Hegel described that development as a movement of negation and sublation (Aufhebung), in which a concept's own limits drive it into a richer and more concrete form that keeps what the earlier one had established. The familiar \"thesis-antithesis-synthesis\" formula is not his — it is a later simplification by Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus, and Hegel himself hardly used it." }, { "title": "Absolute Spirit", "text": "Hegel's vision: all of history is the progressive self-realization of Spirit (Geist), moving through art, religion, and philosophy toward complete self-knowledge." }, { "title": "Master-Slave Dialectic", "text": "Hegel's famous analysis: self-consciousness arises only through recognition by another. The struggle for recognition between master and slave drives the development of freedom and culture." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, German Idealism", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/germidea/" } ] }, { "id": "hard-determinism", "label": "Hard Determinism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/hard-determinism/", "description": "Causal determinism is true and incompatible with free will, so human beings do not have free will.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "ethics", "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Free Will", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/freewill/" } ] }, { "id": "heraclitean", "label": "Heracliteanism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/heraclitean/", "description": "Heraclitus of Ephesus taught that everything is in constant flux. The saying he is best known for — that you cannot step into the same river twice — is Plato's summary rather than a surviving fragment, and some scholars think it overstates him; what the fragments say is that different waters flow upon those who step into the same rivers. Yet this ceaseless change is governed by the Logos, a rational principle that orders the cosmos. Reality is constituted by the dynamic tension of opposites: day and night, life and death, war and peace are aspects of a single underlying unity.", "formationKind": "intellectual-current", "era": "classical", "timePeriod": "c. 500-400 BCE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "metaphysics", "nature" ], "keyFigures": [ "Heraclitus" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Logos (universal reason)", "Flux and change", "Unity of opposites", "Fire as arche" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Universal Flux", "text": "All things are in perpetual change. The world is a process rather than a collection of fixed objects, and what looks like a stable thing is a pattern held steady within that change." }, { "title": "Logos", "text": "A rational principle governing all change — the hidden harmony behind the apparent chaos. Most people fail to perceive it, living as if asleep." }, { "title": "Unity of Opposites", "text": "Opposites are interdependent: 'The road up and the road down are one and the same.' Conflict and tension are not defects but the very structure of reality." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Heraclitus", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/heraclitus/" } ] }, { "id": "heraclitean-flux", "label": "Universal Flux", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/heraclitean-flux/", "description": "Reality is process: everything flows, and stability is only a pattern in change.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "G. S. Kirk, J. E. Raven and M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers (2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1983)" } ] }, { "id": "hermeneutic-method", "label": "Hermeneutic Circle", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/hermeneutic-method/", "description": "The hermeneutic circle interprets parts through a provisional understanding of their whole and revises the whole through closer interpretation of its parts.", "methodFamily": "critical-interpretive", "domains": [ "language" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Form a provisional whole", "text": "Begin with an initial sense of the work, context, or question." }, { "title": "Interpret a part", "text": "Read a passage or feature in light of that provisional whole." }, { "title": "Let the part revise the whole", "text": "Change the larger interpretation when the detail resists it." }, { "title": "Repeat reflectively", "text": "Continue the movement while examining the historical assumptions brought by the interpreter." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method, Part II" } ] }, { "id": "hermeneutics", "label": "Hermeneutics", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/hermeneutics/", "description": "Hermeneutics is the philosophy of interpretation and understanding. Gadamer argued that understanding is not a neutral method but always involves the interpreter's historical situation and prejudices (pre-understandings). Genuine understanding occurs through a 'fusion of horizons' — where the interpreter's perspective and the text's horizon meet and produce new meaning.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "twentieth-century-plus", "timePeriod": "c. 1838 CE onward", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "epistemology", "language" ], "keyFigures": [ "Friedrich Schleiermacher", "Wilhelm Dilthey", "Hans-Georg Gadamer", "Paul Ricoeur" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Hermeneutic circle", "Fusion of horizons", "Prejudice/pre-understanding", "Verstehen (understanding)", "Interpretation" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Hermeneutic Circle", "text": "We understand the parts through the whole and the whole through the parts. Understanding is circular: every interpretation presupposes prior understanding, which is revised through further interpretation." }, { "title": "Fusion of Horizons", "text": "Understanding is not reproducing an author's original intention but a productive encounter between the reader's 'horizon' (historical situation) and the text's horizon." }, { "title": "Productive Prejudice", "text": "Gadamer rehabilitates 'prejudice' (Vorurteil): pre-understandings are not obstacles to truth but the very conditions that make understanding possible." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Hermeneutics", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hermeneutics/" } ] }, { "id": "hermeticism", "label": "Renaissance Hermeticism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/hermeticism/", "description": "Renaissance Hermeticism drew on texts attributed to the legendary Hermes Trismegistus to connect knowledge of the cosmos with spiritual transformation, magic, and the recovery of an ancient theology. Frances Yates famously argued that this current helped shape the development of early modern science, but the scale and character of that influence remain a contested historical thesis.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "renaissance", "timePeriod": "c. 1460-1650 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "metaphysics", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Hermes Trismegistus (legendary)", "Marsilio Ficino", "Giordano Bruno", "Cornelius Agrippa" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Microcosm-macrocosm correspondence", "Prisca theologia", "Spiritual alchemy", "Theurgy" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Microcosm and Macrocosm", "text": "Renaissance and later Hermetic reception linked the human being and the larger cosmos through relations of correspondence. The familiar phrase \"as above, so below\" is a modern paraphrase of the Emerald Tablet rather than a sentence from the Corpus Hermeticum." }, { "title": "Prisca Theologia", "text": "The belief that a single, ancient theology was given to humanity at the dawn of time and fragments of it are preserved in all wisdom traditions." }, { "title": "Spiritual Transformation", "text": "Through gnosis (direct spiritual knowledge), the adept can ascend through the celestial spheres, shedding material limitations and reuniting with the divine source." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Frances A. Yates, Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition (University of Chicago Press, 1964)" }, { "citation": "Brian Vickers, 'Frances Yates and the Writing of History', Journal of Modern History 51:2 (1979), pp. 287–316" }, { "citation": "Florian Ebeling, The Secret History of Hermes Trismegistus: Hermeticism from Ancient to Modern Times (Cornell University Press, 2007)" } ] }, { "id": "historical-materialist-critique", "label": "Historical-Materialist Critique", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/historical-materialist-critique/", "description": "Historical-materialist critique explains ideas, institutions, and social conflicts through historically changing material production and class relations.", "methodFamily": "critical-interpretive", "domains": [ "political" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Locate material organization", "text": "Examine how production, labor, and property are arranged." }, { "title": "Map social relations", "text": "Identify the classes, institutions, and dependencies formed through that organization." }, { "title": "Historicize ideas and institutions", "text": "Ask how dominant concepts and practices arise from changing social conditions." }, { "title": "Test mystification", "text": "Show where an account hides or naturalizes the relations that sustain it." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Karl Marx, §5", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/" } ] }, { "id": "humanism", "label": "Renaissance Humanism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/humanism/", "description": "Renaissance Humanism revived the study of Greek and Latin classics (studia humanitatis) and shifted intellectual focus from purely theological questions to human nature, dignity, and creative potential. Pico della Mirandola declared that humans are uniquely self-creating beings, free to shape their own nature — a revolutionary celebration of human agency and potential.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "renaissance", "timePeriod": "c. 1350-1600 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "aesthetic", "ethics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Petrarch", "Erasmus", "Pico della Mirandola", "Lorenzo Valla", "Michel de Montaigne" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Studia humanitatis", "Dignity of man", "Classical revival", "Critical philology", "Individual expression" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Dignity of Man", "text": "Pico's vision: God placed humans at the center of creation with no fixed nature, free to ascend to the divine or descend to the bestial. We are the sculptors of ourselves." }, { "title": "Studia Humanitatis", "text": "The core humanist curriculum — grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy — drawn from classical sources. Education forms the complete, virtuous human being." }, { "title": "Critical Philology", "text": "Valla and Erasmus applied rigorous textual criticism to classical and biblical texts, demonstrating that careful reading of sources can overturn centuries of received opinion." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Paul Oskar Kristeller, Renaissance Thought: The Classic, Scholastic, and Humanist Strains (Harper, 1961)" } ] }, { "id": "humean-regularity", "label": "Humean Regularity", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/humean-regularity/", "description": "Causation consists in temporal priority, contiguity, and regular succession, without a further necessary connection or causal power in objects.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Regularity and Inferential Theories of Causation", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/causation-regularity/" } ] }, { "id": "idealism", "label": "Idealism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/idealism/", "description": "Mind, experience, or conceptual activity is fundamental to reality or to its knowable form.", "positionLevel": "family", "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Idealism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/idealism/" } ] }, { "id": "ideology-critique", "label": "Ideology Critique", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/ideology-critique/", "description": "Ideology critique examines how socially produced beliefs and representations misdescribe, legitimate, or reproduce relations of domination.", "methodFamily": "critical-interpretive", "domains": [ "political" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Identify the representation", "text": "Select a widespread belief, image, norm, or category with social force." }, { "title": "Test its account of reality", "text": "Examine what the representation reveals, hides, or treats as natural." }, { "title": "Trace its social production", "text": "Relate the belief to institutions, practices, interests, and asymmetries of power." }, { "title": "Assess its effects", "text": "Ask how it supports or contests domination and what emancipation would require." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Critical Theory", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/" } ] }, { "id": "immanent-critique", "label": "Immanent Critique", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/immanent-critique/", "description": "Immanent critique reconstructs the standards a society or a position must appeal to in order to justify itself, and shows that the object cannot satisfy those standards while remaining what it is.", "methodFamily": "critical-interpretive", "domains": [ "political" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Reconstruct the operative standard", "text": "Establish the norm the object actually relies on to justify itself, which is not always the one it advertises." }, { "title": "Grant that standard", "text": "Argue from it rather than substituting one the critic prefers, so the criticism cannot be answered by rejecting the critic's values." }, { "title": "Show the failure is structural", "text": "Demonstrate that the object generates the shortfall itself, rather than merely happening to fall short of it." }, { "title": "Read the contradiction as a direction", "text": "Take what the object cannot deliver as an indication of the form that could, instead of stopping at the negative result." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Critical Theory, §2", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/" } ] }, { "id": "inductive-reasoning", "label": "Inductive Reasoning", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/inductive-reasoning/", "description": "Inductive reasoning generalizes from observed cases to unobserved ones, or from a sample to a wider population, in a way that makes the conclusion likely without guaranteeing it.", "methodFamily": "argumentative", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Assemble the cases", "text": "Collect observations, checking how varied and how numerous they are." }, { "title": "Generalize beyond them", "text": "Extend the pattern to cases not yet observed." }, { "title": "Assess the strength", "text": "Judge how strongly the evidence supports the conclusion, since support comes in degrees." }, { "title": "Confront the justification problem", "text": "Face the question of what entitles the projection, given that past success is itself an inductive ground." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Problem of Induction", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/induction-problem/" } ] }, { "id": "institutional-theory-of-art", "label": "Institutional Theory of Art", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/institutional-theory-of-art/", "description": "Something is a work of art when a practice with the authority to do so confers that status on it, not because of any property it displays.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "aesthetic" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Arthur Danto, 'The Artworld', Journal of Philosophy 61 (1964)" }, { "citation": "George Dickie, Art and the Aesthetic: An Institutional Analysis (1974)" } ] }, { "id": "introspection", "label": "Introspection", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/introspection/", "description": "Introspection forms judgments about one's own current mental states by attending to them directly, rather than by inference from behaviour or physiology.", "methodFamily": "experiential", "domains": [ "mind" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Turn attention inward", "text": "Direct awareness to a mental state one is currently in." }, { "title": "Report the state", "text": "Classify what is found — a sensation, an image, a thought, an emotion." }, { "title": "Separate observation from theory", "text": "Distinguish what is noticed from the account one already holds of the mind." }, { "title": "Weigh the report's reliability", "text": "Treat introspective evidence as defeasible, since attending to a state can alter or misclassify it." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Introspection", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/introspection/" } ] }, { "id": "islamic-phil", "label": "Medieval Islamic Philosophy", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/islamic-phil/", "description": "Medieval Islamic philosophy spanned several distinct currents; falsafa — the tradition this entity centers on — is not the whole of it. Falsafa was the creative engagement of Muslim thinkers with the Greek philosophical inheritance, especially Aristotle and Neoplatonism. It developed alongside, and often in tension with, kalām — the tradition of rational Islamic theology — as well as later Illuminationist and Sufi currents. Avicenna built influential theories of essence and existence, Al-Ghazali challenged the philosophers from within kalām, and Averroes defended philosophy's autonomy — debates that profoundly shaped both the Islamic world and the Latin West.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "high-medieval", "timePeriod": "c. 800-1400 CE", "regions": [ "middle-east" ], "domains": [ "logic", "metaphysics", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Al-Kindi", "Al-Farabi", "Ibn Sina (Avicenna)", "Al-Ghazali", "Ibn Rushd (Averroes)" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Falsafa", "Kalam (rational theology)", "Essence and existence", "Active intellect", "Harmony of philosophy and religion" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Essence and Existence", "text": "Avicenna's groundbreaking distinction: in all beings except God, essence (what a thing is) is distinct from existence (that it is). Only in God are essence and existence identical." }, { "title": "Philosophy and Revelation", "text": "Islamic philosophers debated whether philosophical reason and Quranic revelation are compatible. Averroes argued they are two paths to the same truth; Al-Ghazali defended revelation's supremacy." }, { "title": "Emanation", "text": "Following Neoplatonism, Al-Farabi and Avicenna described creation as an eternal emanation from God through successive intellects — reconciling Greek cosmology with Islamic theology." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Peter Adamson, Philosophy in the Islamic World (Oxford University Press, 2016)" } ] }, { "id": "jainism", "label": "Jainism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/jainism/", "description": "Jainism teaches that every living being possesses an eternal soul (jiva) weighed down by karmic matter accumulated through actions. Liberation (moksha) requires strict ethical discipline — above all ahimsa (non-violence) toward all living beings — combined with right knowledge and right conduct. Its doctrine of anekantavada (many-sidedness of truth) is a sophisticated form of perspectivism.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "ancient", "timePeriod": "c. 550 BCE onward", "regions": [ "south-asia" ], "domains": [ "ethics", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Mahavira", "Parshvanatha", "Umasvati", "Kundakunda" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Ahimsa (non-violence)", "Anekantavada (many-sidedness)", "Karma as matter", "Asceticism", "Jiva and Ajiva" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Ahimsa", "text": "Non-violence is the supreme ethical principle. Jain monks sweep the path before them and strain water to avoid harming even the smallest creatures." }, { "title": "Anekantavada", "text": "Reality is complex and many-sided; no single viewpoint captures the whole truth. This doctrine of non-absolutism encourages intellectual humility and tolerance." }, { "title": "Karma as Substance", "text": "Uniquely, Jainism treats karma as fine material particles that cling to the soul, weighing it down. Ascetic practice burns off karmic matter, gradually liberating the soul." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Padmanabh S. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification (University of California Press, 1979)" } ] }, { "id": "jewish-phil", "label": "Medieval Jewish Philosophy", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/jewish-phil/", "description": "From around 900 into the fifteenth century, Jewish thinkers in Islamic and Christian lands developed varied philosophical accounts of Judaism. They drew on Jewish scripture and rabbinic traditions while engaging Islamic theology, Aristotelianism, Neoplatonism, and, later, Christian Scholasticism. Saadia Gaon, Judah Halevi, Maimonides, Gersonides, and Hasdai Crescas did not offer one settled synthesis: they disagreed about the reach of reason, the language used of God, creation, prophecy, providence, and divine law.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "high-medieval", "timePeriod": "c. 900-1450 CE", "regions": [ "middle-east", "europe" ], "domains": [ "epistemology", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Saadia Gaon", "Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon)", "Judah Halevi", "Gersonides", "Hasdai Crescas" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Negative theology", "Prophecy and reason", "Halakha and philosophy", "Divine attributes", "Divine providence" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Reason and Revelation", "text": "Medieval Jewish philosophers disputed how far philosophical demonstration could interpret scripture and religious law. Maimonides defended their compatibility when each was properly understood, while other thinkers placed different limits on reason's authority." }, { "title": "Language about God", "text": "Maimonides's negative theology held that positive descriptions cannot state God's essence; his account was one influential contribution to a wider medieval debate about divine attributes." }, { "title": "Prophecy, Providence, and Law", "text": "The tradition used philosophical arguments to examine prophecy, divine knowledge and care, human freedom, and the relationship between divine and human law." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Daniel H. Frank and Oliver Leaman (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Jewish Philosophy (Cambridge University Press, 2003)", "url": "https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-companion-to-medieval-jewish-philosophy/E66B7DF4F4C495A820231257C2CE493D" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Maimonides", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/maimonides/" } ] }, { "id": "kabbalah", "label": "Kabbalah", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/kabbalah/", "description": "Kabbalah emerged as a distinct mystical and philosophical tradition within Judaism during the 12th and 13th centuries in Provence and Spain, drawing on older currents of Jewish esoteric thought including Merkavah mysticism and the Sefer Yetzirah. Absorbing Neoplatonic emanation theology through Islamic and Jewish intermediaries, it developed an intricate symbolic system centered on the hidden dimensions of Torah.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "high-medieval", "timePeriod": "c. 1150-1600 CE", "regions": [ "middle-east", "europe" ], "domains": [ "metaphysics", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Moses de Leon", "Isaac Luria", "Abraham Abulafia", "Moses Cordovero" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Sefirot (divine emanations)", "Ein Sof (the infinite)", "Tikkun (repair of the world)", "Tsimtsum (divine contraction)", "Hidden Torah" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Sefirot (Divine Emanations)", "text": "Ten luminous attributes through which the infinite Godhead (Ein Sof) manifests itself, forming a dynamic structure that mediates between divine transcendence and the created world." }, { "title": "Tsimtsum (Divine Contraction)", "text": "Isaac Luria's concept that creation required God's voluntary withdrawal, making space for a finite world — a radical inversion of emanation as expansion." }, { "title": "Tikkun (Repair of the World)", "text": "The redemptive task of gathering scattered sparks of divine light through ethical and spiritual practice, restoring wholeness to a fractured cosmos." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Gershom Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (Schocken, 1941)" } ] }, { "id": "kantian-deontology", "label": "Kantian Deontology", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/kantian-deontology/", "description": "Actions are right when they respect duties and persons, not merely when they produce good consequences.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "ethics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Deontological Ethics", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-deontological/" } ] }, { "id": "kantianism", "label": "Kantian Critical Philosophy", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/kantianism/", "description": "Kant's critical project argues that experience is structured by a priori forms of sensible intuition (space and time) and by a priori categories of understanding, including substance and causality. Theoretical cognition is limited to appearances: things in themselves can be thought, but they cannot be theoretically cognized. In ethics, Kant grounds morality in the categorical imperative: act only according to principles you could will as universal laws.", "formationKind": "intellectual-current", "era": "enlightenment", "timePeriod": "c. 1781-1804 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "aesthetic", "epistemology", "ethics", "metaphysics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Immanuel Kant" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Categorical imperative", "Transcendental idealism", "Synthetic a priori", "Appearances and things in themselves", "Autonomy of the will" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Transcendental Idealism", "text": "Space and time are the a priori forms of human sensible intuition, while the categories are a priori concepts through which the understanding organizes experience. Neither gives theoretical cognition of things as they are in themselves." }, { "title": "Categorical Imperative", "text": "'Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.' Morality is grounded in rational duty, not consequences or desires." }, { "title": "Synthetic A Priori", "text": "Kant argues that some knowledge is both informative about the world (synthetic) and knowable independent of experience (a priori) — mathematics and the principles of natural science." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Immanuel Kant", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Kant's Transcendental Idealism, §1 'Appearances and Things in Themselves'", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/" } ] }, { "id": "knowledge", "label": "Experience or Reason?", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/knowledge/", "description": "Does substantive knowledge ultimately depend on sense experience, or can reason provide it independently?", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Rationalism vs. Empiricism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/" } ] }, { "id": "knowledge-possibility", "label": "The Possibility of Knowledge", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/knowledge-possibility/", "description": "If certainty is unattainable, must we suspend judgment entirely, or may we still follow the probable?", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Skepticism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism/" } ] }, { "id": "koan-practice", "label": "Kōan Practice", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/koan-practice/", "description": "Kōan practice assigns a student a recorded case — an exchange, question, or saying — and requires them to work with it until they can answer from understanding rather than from explanation.", "methodFamily": "contemplative", "domains": [], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Receive the case", "text": "Take up a specific recorded exchange assigned by a teacher." }, { "title": "Hold it continuously", "text": "Keep the case present in and out of formal sitting, rather than solving it in one attempt." }, { "title": "Exhaust conceptual escape", "text": "Let ordinary explanatory strategies fail instead of settling for a satisfying interpretation." }, { "title": "Answer and be tested", "text": "Present a response in interview, where a teacher judges whether it comes from understanding." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Japanese Zen Buddhist Philosophy, §2", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/japanese-zen/" } ] }, { "id": "kuhnian-puzzle-solving", "label": "Kuhnian Puzzle-Solving", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/kuhnian-puzzle-solving/", "description": "A field is scientific when its practitioners share a paradigm and work within it on puzzles that the paradigm itself certifies as solvable.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "epistemology", "science" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), ch. 3–4" } ] }, { "id": "kyoto-school", "label": "Kyoto School", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/kyoto-school/", "description": "The Kyoto School, centered at Kyoto University, represents the most significant attempt to synthesize Eastern (especially Zen Buddhist) and Western (especially phenomenological and existentialist) philosophy. Nishida developed the concept of 'absolute nothingness' (zettai mu) as a more fundamental ground than Western Being, while Nishitani explored the relationship between nihilism and Buddhist emptiness.", "formationKind": "school", "era": "twentieth-century-plus", "timePeriod": "c. 1913 CE onward", "regions": [ "east-asia" ], "domains": [ "metaphysics", "mind" ], "keyFigures": [ "Nishida Kitaro", "Tanabe Hajime", "Nishitani Keiji", "Watsuji Tetsuro" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Absolute nothingness (zettai mu)", "Place (basho)", "Self-awakening", "Emptiness and existence", "East-West synthesis" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Absolute Nothingness", "text": "Nishida's key concept: the ground of reality is not Being (as in Western metaphysics) but absolute nothingness — the 'place' (basho) in which all determinations arise and return." }, { "title": "Self-Awakening", "text": "True self-knowledge is not reflective consciousness but a direct, non-dual awareness — the self knowing itself in and through absolute nothingness." }, { "title": "Overcoming Nihilism", "text": "Nishitani argued that Western nihilism can be overcome not by returning to theism but by passing through nihilism into the Buddhist experience of sunyata (emptiness) — a creative, affirmative nothing." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Kyoto School", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kyoto-school/" } ] }, { "id": "language", "label": "Philosophy of Language", "type": "domain", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/language/", "description": "Questions about meaning, reference, interpretation, and signs.", "domains": [], "sources": [ { "citation": "Controlled domain vocabulary (docs/taxonomy.md)" } ] }, { "id": "language-meaning", "label": "The Grounds of Linguistic Meaning", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/language-meaning/", "description": "What facts make a linguistic expression have the meaning that it has?", "domains": [ "language" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Theories of Meaning", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/meaning/" } ] }, { "id": "legalism", "label": "Legalism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/legalism/", "description": "Chinese Legalism holds that human nature is fundamentally self-interested and that social order can only be maintained through clear laws, strict punishments, and systematic statecraft. Rejecting Confucian moral cultivation and Taoist naturalness, the Legalists built a philosophy of power that unified China under the Qin dynasty.", "formationKind": "school", "era": "classical", "timePeriod": "c. 400-206 BCE", "regions": [ "east-asia" ], "domains": [ "political" ], "keyFigures": [ "Shang Yang", "Han Feizi", "Li Si", "Shen Buhai" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Rule by law (fa)", "Statecraft (shu)", "Power/position (shi)", "Strict rewards and punishments" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Rule by Law", "text": "Laws must be clear, public, and impartially enforced. The ruler governs through an impersonal legal system, not personal virtue or relationships." }, { "title": "Self-Interest", "text": "Han Feizi argued that people act from self-interest, not benevolence. Effective governance aligns individual self-interest with the state's goals through rewards and punishments." }, { "title": "The Two Handles", "text": "The ruler's essential tools are reward and punishment. Used consistently, they make the state a self-regulating mechanism that requires no moral exhortation." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Legalism in Chinese Philosophy", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-legalism/" } ] }, { "id": "libertarian-freedom", "label": "Libertarian Free Will", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/libertarian-freedom/", "description": "Genuine choice is real; the will is not necessitated.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "ethics", "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Incompatibilist Theories of Free Will", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/incompatibilism-theories/" } ] }, { "id": "logic", "label": "Logic", "type": "domain", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/logic/", "description": "Questions about inference, validity, language, and formal structure.", "domains": [], "sources": [ { "citation": "Controlled domain vocabulary (docs/taxonomy.md)" } ] }, { "id": "logical-consequence", "label": "Logical Consequence", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/logical-consequence/", "description": "What makes a conclusion follow logically from its premises?", "domains": [ "logic" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "John Etchemendy, The Concept of Logical Consequence (1990), ch. 1" } ] }, { "id": "logical-pos", "label": "Logical Positivism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/logical-pos/", "description": "Logical Positivism (the Vienna Circle) held that a statement is meaningful only if it is either analytically true (true by definition) or empirically verifiable. By this criterion, metaphysics, theology, and ethics are literally meaningless — not false, but devoid of cognitive content. Though the movement's strict verificationism was eventually abandoned, its emphasis on rigor profoundly shaped analytic philosophy.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "twentieth-century-plus", "timePeriod": "c. 1924-1960 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "epistemology", "language", "science" ], "keyFigures": [ "Moritz Schlick", "Rudolf Carnap", "A. J. Ayer", "Otto Neurath" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Verification principle", "Elimination of metaphysics", "Analytic-synthetic distinction", "Protocol sentences", "Unity of science" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Verification Principle", "text": "A non-tautological statement is meaningful only if there is some possible observation that would verify or confirm it. 'The Absolute is perfect' fails this test." }, { "title": "Elimination of Metaphysics", "text": "Traditional philosophical questions (Does God exist? What is the essence of Being?) are not false but meaningless — they violate the conditions for cognitive significance." }, { "title": "Unity of Science", "text": "All genuine sciences share a common language and method. The distinctions between physics, biology, and psychology are practical, not fundamental." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Vienna Circle", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/vienna-circle/" } ] }, { "id": "machiavellianism", "label": "Machiavelli's Political Thought", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/machiavellianism/", "description": "Machiavelli's political thought examines power, political necessity, institutions, and civic liberty through historical examples and direct political experience. The Prince argues that rulers may need to depart from conventional virtue to preserve a state, while the Discourses treats public participation and conflict between social groups as potential supports for republican liberty. His work became a major and contested contribution to early modern political thought rather than the uncontested founding of modern politics.", "formationKind": "intellectual-current", "era": "renaissance", "timePeriod": "c. 1513-1527 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "political" ], "keyFigures": [ "Niccolò Machiavelli" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Virtù and Fortuna", "Political realism", "Effectual truth over moral ideals", "Political necessity and conventional morality", "Republican liberty and conflict" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Virtù", "text": "Machiavellian virtù is the flexible skill, energy, and judgment needed to act effectively as fortune and political circumstances change; it is not the same as conventional moral virtue." }, { "title": "Effectual Truth", "text": "Machiavelli turns from imagined ideal regimes to the observable conduct and historical experience of political life, especially when asking how rulers acquire and maintain power." }, { "title": "Republican Liberty", "text": "In the Discourses, liberty depends on laws and institutions that channel participation and conflict between the people and elites instead of eliminating political disagreement." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Niccolò Machiavelli", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/machiavelli/" } ] }, { "id": "madhyamaka", "label": "Madhyamaka", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/madhyamaka/", "description": "Madhyamaka, founded by Nagarjuna, is the philosophy of the 'Middle Way' between the extremes of existence and non-existence. Through rigorous dialectical analysis, Nagarjuna demonstrates that all phenomena are empty (sunya) of inherent existence — they exist only dependently and conventionally. This emptiness is itself empty, avoiding even the reification of emptiness.", "formationKind": "school", "era": "late-antiquity", "timePeriod": "c. 150 CE onward", "regions": [ "south-asia" ], "domains": [ "epistemology", "metaphysics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Nagarjuna", "Aryadeva", "Chandrakirti", "Buddhapalita" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Sunyata (emptiness)", "Two truths", "Dependent origination", "Tetralemma (catuskoti)", "Middle way between extremes" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Emptiness of Emptiness", "text": "Nagarjuna insists that emptiness itself is not a thing or a substance — it is simply the absence of inherent existence. Even emptiness is empty." }, { "title": "Two Truths", "text": "Conventional truth (samvriti-satya) operates at the everyday level; ultimate truth (paramartha-satya) reveals the emptiness of all things. Both are necessary; neither is discarded." }, { "title": "Tetralemma", "text": "Nagarjuna systematically negates four possible positions on any claim: it is, it is not, it both is and is not, it neither is nor is not — dissolving all conceptual fixation." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Nāgārjuna", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nagarjuna/" } ] }, { "id": "mahayana", "label": "Mahayana", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/mahayana/", "description": "Mahayana ('Great Vehicle') Buddhism expanded the Buddhist path from individual liberation to universal salvation through the bodhisattva ideal — the aspiration to attain enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings. Its philosophical innovations include Nagarjuna's doctrine of emptiness (sunyata) and the Yogacara school's analysis of consciousness.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "classical", "timePeriod": "c. 100 BCE onward", "regions": [ "south-asia", "east-asia" ], "domains": [ "ethics", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Nagarjuna", "Asanga", "Vasubandhu", "Shantideva" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Bodhisattva ideal", "Sunyata (emptiness)", "Skillful means (upaya)", "Buddha-nature" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Bodhisattva Ideal", "text": "Rather than seeking individual nirvana, the bodhisattva vows to remain in the cycle of rebirth until all beings are liberated — compassion as the supreme virtue." }, { "title": "Sunyata (Emptiness)", "text": "All phenomena are empty of inherent, independent existence. Emptiness is not nothingness but the absence of fixed essence — everything exists dependently." }, { "title": "Skillful Means (Upaya)", "text": "The Buddha adapts his teaching to the capacities of each listener. Different doctrines and practices are appropriate for different people at different stages." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Paul Williams, Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations (2nd ed., Routledge, 2009)" } ] }, { "id": "marxism", "label": "Marxism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/marxism/", "description": "Marxism analyzes societies through material production, class relations, and historically changing forms of power. Marx examined alienated labor, exploitation, and conflicts within capitalism; later Marxists developed competing accounts of how economic structures, political organization, class struggle, and ideas interact in historical change. Revolutionary transformation is therefore a problem of historical conditions and political action, not an automatic outcome guaranteed by a single contradiction.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "nineteenth-century", "timePeriod": "c. 1840 CE onward", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "ethics", "political" ], "keyFigures": [ "Karl Marx", "Friedrich Engels", "Rosa Luxemburg", "Antonio Gramsci" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Historical materialism", "Class struggle", "Alienation", "Surplus value", "Base and superstructure" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Historical Materialism", "text": "Modes of production and class relations condition law, politics, and dominant forms of thought. The framework gives material production explanatory importance without reducing every historical change to a one-way, mechanical effect of the economic base." }, { "title": "Alienation", "text": "Under capitalism, workers are alienated from their labor, its products, their fellow workers, and their own human potential — reduced to commodities in the production process." }, { "title": "Class Struggle", "text": "'The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.' Social change comes through conflict between those who own the means of production and those who labor." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Karl Marx", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/" }, { "citation": "Friedrich Engels, letter to Joseph Bloch, 21–22 September 1890" } ] }, { "id": "materialism", "label": "Materialism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/materialism/", "description": "Reality is fundamentally physical.", "positionLevel": "family", "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Physicalism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/physicalism/" } ] }, { "id": "meaning", "label": "The Meaning of Life", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/meaning/", "description": "Does human existence have meaning, and what would confer it?", "domains": [ "ethics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Meaning of Life", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/life-meaning/" } ] }, { "id": "medieval-realism", "label": "Medieval Realism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/medieval-realism/", "description": "Medieval Realism was the historically situated realist current in medieval debates over universals. Its members disagreed about the status of universal natures, ranging from stronger Platonic accounts to moderate Aristotelian ones.", "formationKind": "intellectual-current", "era": "high-medieval", "timePeriod": "c. 950-1350 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Boethius (precursor, 6th c.)", "Anselm", "Thomas Aquinas", "Duns Scotus", "William of Champeaux" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Universals", "Moderate realism", "Essential natures", "Participation in forms", "Common nature" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Universals as Real", "text": "General knowledge is not explained by words alone; particulars have real features that can be understood universally." }, { "title": "Several Realist Accounts", "text": "Medieval realists disagreed about whether and how universals exist before, in, or after particular things." }, { "title": "A Historical Camp", "text": "The current was defined partly through its dispute with nominalist approaches, not by one uniform doctrine." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Medieval Problem of Universals", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/universals-medieval/" } ] }, { "id": "mesopotamian", "label": "Mesopotamian Thought", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/mesopotamian/", "description": "Mesopotamian thought names a diverse corpus preserved in Sumerian and Akkadian cuneiform traditions, including wisdom literature, epics, dialogues, law, divination, and scholarly lists. These texts examine mortality, suffering, justice, knowledge, and relations between humans and gods. Some scholars argue that parts of this intellectual corpus count as philosophy; others reserve that term for different forms of argument, so its inclusion remains debated.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "ancient", "timePeriod": "c. 3500-500 BCE", "regions": [ "middle-east" ], "domains": [ "political", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Hammurabi", "Enheduanna", "Sin-leqi-unninni" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Mortality in Gilgamesh", "Suffering and divine justice", "Cuneiform scholarship", "Law and royal justice" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Mortality in Gilgamesh", "text": "After Enkidu's death, Gilgamesh seeks escape from death and fails to secure lasting immortality. The epic keeps mortality, loss, fame, and the limits of human life in view without reducing them to a single maxim." }, { "title": "Suffering and Divine Justice", "text": "Works collected as Babylonian wisdom literature, including the *Babylonian Theodicy*, stage disputes about undeserved suffering and the justice or inscrutability of the gods." }, { "title": "Cuneiform Knowledge", "text": "Scribal word lists, omen series, legal texts, and other learned compilations organized knowledge through the structures of cuneiform writing. Treating these practices as philosophical is a modern scholarly argument, not an uncontested ancient classification." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Amanda H. Podany, The Ancient Near East: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2014)", "url": "https://academic.oup.com/book/28459" }, { "citation": "Marc Van De Mieroop, Philosophy before the Greeks: The Pursuit of Truth in Ancient Babylonia (Princeton University Press, 2015)", "url": "https://doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691157184.001.0001" }, { "citation": "Andrew George, The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic: Introduction, Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts (Oxford University Press, 2003)" }, { "citation": "W. G. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature (Clarendon Press, 1960), including the Babylonian Theodicy" } ] }, { "id": "metaphysics", "label": "Metaphysics", "type": "domain", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/metaphysics/", "description": "Questions about reality, causation, being, and universals.", "domains": [], "sources": [ { "citation": "Controlled domain vocabulary (docs/taxonomy.md)" } ] }, { "id": "methodic-doubt", "label": "Methodic Doubt", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/methodic-doubt/", "description": "Methodic doubt provisionally withholds assent from beliefs vulnerable to doubt in order to find a secure basis from which knowledge can be reconstructed.", "methodFamily": "argumentative", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Identify dubitable beliefs", "text": "Begin with beliefs that depend on sources capable of error." }, { "title": "Intensify the test", "text": "Use skeptical scenarios to expose assumptions that ordinary doubt leaves untouched." }, { "title": "Withhold assent", "text": "Treat the vulnerable beliefs as unsettled for the purposes of inquiry." }, { "title": "Find and rebuild", "text": "Seek a proposition resistant to the test and reconstruct claims from that basis." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Descartes' Epistemology", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-epistemology/" } ] }, { "id": "milesians", "label": "Milesians", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/milesians/", "description": "The Milesians were early Greek inquirers associated with Miletus whose surviving testimony concerns the causes and principles of nature. Later sources associate Thales with water, Anaximander with the indefinite or boundless (apeiron), and Anaximenes with air and processes of rarefaction and condensation. Because their evidence is fragmentary and largely transmitted by later authors, both the details of their views and the unity of a master-to-pupil school require caution.", "formationKind": "school", "era": "ancient", "timePeriod": "c. 624-528 BCE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "metaphysics", "nature" ], "keyFigures": [ "Thales", "Anaximander", "Anaximenes" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Archai (originating principles)", "Naturalistic explanation", "Apeiron (the boundless)", "Cosmological inquiry" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Inquiry into Nature", "text": "The Milesians sought explanations in the world's own principles and processes while investigating celestial and terrestrial phenomena. This was not a simple one-step replacement of myth by reason, and their philosophical and scientific concerns were not separate disciplines." }, { "title": "Originating Principles", "text": "Aristotle's later reconstruction presents water, the *apeiron*, and air as originating principles. Whether the Milesians also treated each as one material substance persisting through every change is disputed." }, { "title": "Anaximander's Apeiron", "text": "Testimony describes the *apeiron* as an indefinite or boundless originating nature from which worlds and opposed qualities arise. Its exact character remains a matter of interpretation, and the fragmentary evidence cannot support claims of conceptual priority." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Presocratic Philosophy", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/presocratics/" }, { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Anaximenes — flourished in the mid 6th century BCE and died about 528 BCE; as the third and last philosopher of the Milesian School this fixes the school's end", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/anaximenes/" } ] }, { "id": "mind", "label": "Philosophy of Mind", "type": "domain", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/mind/", "description": "Questions about consciousness, selfhood, embodiment, and freedom.", "domains": [], "sources": [ { "citation": "Controlled domain vocabulary (docs/taxonomy.md)" } ] }, { "id": "mind-body", "label": "The Mind–Body Problem", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/mind-body/", "description": "Is the mind an immaterial reality distinct from the body, or is it entirely physical?", "domains": [ "mind" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Dualism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/" } ] }, { "id": "model-theoretic-consequence", "label": "Model-Theoretic Consequence", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/model-theoretic-consequence/", "description": "A conclusion is a logical consequence of premises when every admissible interpretation or model that makes the premises true also makes the conclusion true.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "logic" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Alfred Tarski, 'On the Concept of Logical Consequence' (1936), in Logic, Semantics, Metamathematics, 2nd ed. (1983), pp. 409–420" } ] }, { "id": "moderate-realism", "label": "Moderate Realism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/moderate-realism/", "description": "Universals are real but exist only in things, abstracted by minds.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Universals (moderate realism)", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/universa/" } ] }, { "id": "mohism", "label": "Mohism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/mohism/", "description": "Mohism, founded by Mozi, challenged Confucianism with the radical doctrine of universal, impartial love (jian'ai) — caring for all people equally, not favoring family or state. Mozi developed proto-utilitarian arguments that policies should be judged by whether they benefit the people, and his followers became renowned for defensive military engineering and logical argumentation.", "formationKind": "school", "era": "classical", "timePeriod": "c. 470-221 BCE", "regions": [ "east-asia" ], "domains": [ "aesthetic", "ethics", "logic", "political" ], "keyFigures": [ "Mozi (Mo Di)" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Universal love (jian'ai)", "Utilitarianism", "Anti-fatalism", "Defensive warfare", "Meritocracy" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Universal Love", "text": "Mozi argued that partiality — loving one's own family or state more than others — is the root of conflict. Impartial concern for all would create a harmonious world." }, { "title": "Consequentialism", "text": "Actions and policies should be judged by their outcomes: do they benefit the people, enrich the state, and increase the population? This is a remarkably early form of utilitarian reasoning." }, { "title": "Anti-Fatalism", "text": "Mozi rejected the Confucian notion of fate (ming), arguing that human effort determines outcomes and that fatalism leads to moral laziness." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Mohism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mohism/" } ] }, { "id": "monism", "label": "Monism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/monism/", "description": "Reality is ultimately one.", "positionLevel": "family", "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Monism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/monism/" } ] }, { "id": "moorean-common-sense", "label": "Moorean Common Sense", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/moorean-common-sense/", "description": "We know ordinary truths about physical objects more securely than we know the premises of any argument against them, so it is the sceptical argument that should be given up.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "G. E. Moore, 'A Defence of Common Sense' (1925)" }, { "citation": "G. E. Moore, 'Proof of an External World' (1939)" } ] }, { "id": "moral-standing-in-nature", "label": "Moral Standing in Nature", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/moral-standing-in-nature/", "description": "Which parts of the natural world have moral standing in their own right?", "domains": [ "ethics", "nature" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Andrew Brennan, 'The Moral Standing of Natural Objects', Environmental Ethics 6 (1984), pp. 35–56" } ] }, { "id": "mysticism", "label": "Mystical Knowledge", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/mysticism/", "description": "Ultimate reality is known by direct experience beyond concepts.", "positionLevel": "family", "domains": [ "religion" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Mysticism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mysticism/" } ] }, { "id": "mysticism-med", "label": "Medieval Mysticism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/mysticism-med/", "description": "Medieval Christian mysticism sought direct experiential union with God, going beyond the rational theology of Scholasticism. Thinkers like Meister Eckhart, Pseudo-Dionysius, and Julian of Norwich explored the via negativa (knowing God by what God is not), the practice of radical detachment, and the transformation of the soul through divine love.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "high-medieval", "timePeriod": "c. 1050-1500 CE", "regions": [ "europe", "middle-east" ], "domains": [ "mind", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Meister Eckhart", "Hildegard of Bingen", "Julian of Norwich", "The Cloud of Unknowing author", "Pseudo-Dionysius (precursor, c. 500)", "John of the Cross (successor, 16th c.)" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Unio mystica", "Via negativa (apophatic theology)", "Ground of the soul (Seelengrund)", "Detachment (Gelassenheit)", "Divine spark" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Via Negativa", "text": "God transcends all human concepts. We approach the divine not by affirming what God is but by systematically negating everything God is not, entering the 'divine darkness.'" }, { "title": "Gelassenheit (Releasement)", "text": "Eckhart's key concept: letting go of self-will, attachments, and even the desire for God — creating an inner emptiness in which the divine can be born in the soul." }, { "title": "Unio Mystica", "text": "The ultimate goal: mystical union with God in which the distinction between the soul and the divine dissolves — 'The eye with which I see God is the same eye with which God sees me.'" } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Meister Eckhart", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/meister-eckhart/" } ] }, { "id": "nature", "label": "Philosophy of Nature", "type": "domain", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/nature/", "description": "Questions about nature, life, science, and ecological order.", "domains": [], "sources": [ { "citation": "Controlled domain vocabulary (docs/taxonomy.md)" } ] }, { "id": "neo-kantianism", "label": "Neo-Kantianism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/neo-kantianism/", "description": "Neo-Kantianism emerged in the 1860s around the rallying cry \"Back to Kant!\" After the collapse of speculative idealism and against the rising tide of scientific materialism, German philosophers argued that Kant's critical philosophy could provide a rigorous foundation for both the natural and human sciences. The movement became the dominant academic philosophy in Germany for over half a century.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "nineteenth-century", "timePeriod": "c. 1865-1930 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "keyFigures": [ "Hermann Cohen", "Paul Natorp", "Ernst Cassirer", "Heinrich Rickert", "Wilhelm Windelband" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Back to Kant", "Transcendental method", "Fact of science", "Nomothetic vs idiographic", "Philosophy of symbolic forms" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Back to Kant", "text": "A rejection of Hegelian speculative metaphysics and scientific materialism in favor of Kant's critical method, reinterpreted for the modern sciences." }, { "title": "Nomothetic vs Idiographic", "text": "Windelband's distinction between sciences that seek general laws and those that study unique, unrepeatable phenomena — foundational for the methodology of the human sciences." }, { "title": "Philosophy of Symbolic Forms", "text": "Cassirer's argument that human experience is constituted through diverse symbolic systems — language, myth, art, science — each forming a distinct and valid mode of world-making." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Neo-Kantianism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/neo-kantianism/" } ] }, { "id": "neo-pragmatism", "label": "Neo-Pragmatism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/neo-pragmatism/", "description": "Neo-Pragmatism recasts and radicalizes classical pragmatism's anti-foundationalism. Rorty argued that philosophy should abandon the quest for objective truth and instead see knowledge as a matter of social conversation and solidarity. Brandom developed inferentialism — meaning is constituted by inferential relations between concepts. Putnam sought to reconcile realism with pragmatist insights.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "twentieth-century-plus", "timePeriod": "c. 1979 CE onward", "regions": [ "north-america" ], "domains": [ "epistemology", "language" ], "keyFigures": [ "Richard Rorty", "Hilary Putnam", "Robert Brandom", "Cornel West" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Anti-representationalism", "Solidarity over objectivity", "Vocabularies", "Inferentialism", "Democratic conversation" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Anti-Representationalism", "text": "Rorty: the mind does not 'mirror' nature. Knowledge is not a representation of reality but a set of practices for coping with the world. Drop the mirror metaphor." }, { "title": "Solidarity Over Objectivity", "text": "We should not seek to transcend our community's standards to reach 'objective truth' but instead expand the community of conversation and deepen mutual understanding." }, { "title": "Inferentialism", "text": "Brandom: the meaning of a concept is determined by its role in inferences — what it follows from and what follows from it — not by what it refers to." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Richard Rorty", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rorty/" } ] }, { "id": "neoconfucianism", "label": "Neo-Confucianism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/neoconfucianism/", "description": "Neo-Confucianism revitalized Confucian thought by integrating metaphysical and cosmological dimensions influenced by Buddhism, alongside currents of Taoist thought. Zhu Xi's rationalist school emphasized the investigation of things to grasp principle (li), while Wang Yangming's idealist school taught that principle resides in the mind itself and that true knowledge is inseparable from action.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "high-medieval", "timePeriod": "c. 1017-1644 CE", "regions": [ "east-asia" ], "domains": [ "ethics", "metaphysics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Zhu Xi", "Wang Yangming", "Zhou Dunyi", "Cheng Yi", "Cheng Hao" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Li (principle)", "Qi (material force)", "Investigation of things", "Innate knowledge (liangzhi)", "Unity of knowledge and action" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Li and Qi", "text": "Zhu Xi's framework: li (principle, pattern) gives things their nature and structure; qi (material force) gives them their physical existence. Together they constitute all reality." }, { "title": "Investigation of Things", "text": "Zhu Xi's method: by carefully studying the principles in things, events, and classics, one gradually extends knowledge and cultivates virtue." }, { "title": "Unity of Knowledge and Action", "text": "Wang Yangming argued that knowing the good and doing the good are one and the same — if you truly know something is right, you act on it. Inaction reveals incomplete knowledge." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Zhu Xi", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/zhu-xi/" } ] }, { "id": "neoplatonism", "label": "Neoplatonism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/neoplatonism/", "description": "Neoplatonism, systematized by Plotinus, describes reality as emanating from a transcendent, ineffable source — the One — through successive levels: the Divine Mind (Nous), the World Soul, and finally the material world. The philosopher's goal is to reverse this emanation through contemplation and achieve mystical union (henosis) with the One.", "formationKind": "school", "era": "late-antiquity", "timePeriod": "c. 204-529 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "aesthetic", "metaphysics", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Plotinus", "Porphyry", "Iamblichus", "Proclus" ], "keyConcepts": [ "The One", "Emanation", "Return to the source", "Henosis (mystical union)" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "The One", "text": "The ultimate principle beyond being and thought — absolutely simple, infinite, and the source from which all reality emanates, as light radiates from the sun." }, { "title": "Emanation", "text": "Reality flows outward from the One in a necessary, eternal process: One → Nous (Intellect) → World Soul → Nature → Matter, each level less perfect than its source." }, { "title": "Contemplative Return", "text": "The soul can ascend back through the levels of reality via philosophical contemplation and purification, ultimately achieving mystical union with the One." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Neoplatonism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/neoplatonism/" } ] }, { "id": "new-confucianism", "label": "New Confucianism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/new-confucianism/", "description": "New Confucianism revitalized Confucian philosophy by engaging with Western thought — especially Kant's moral philosophy and phenomenology — while defending the contemporary relevance of Confucian values. Mou Zongsan argued that Confucianism contains its own form of moral metaphysics, centered on the innate moral mind (liangzhi), that complements and in some ways surpasses Western philosophy.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "twentieth-century-plus", "timePeriod": "c. 1921 CE onward", "regions": [ "east-asia" ], "domains": [ "ethics", "metaphysics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Xiong Shili", "Mou Zongsan", "Tang Junyi", "Tu Weiming" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Moral metaphysics", "Innate moral mind", "Modernization of Confucianism", "Self-negation of conscience", "Harmony of traditions" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Moral Metaphysics", "text": "Mou Zongsan: Confucianism has a 'moral metaphysics' grounded in the direct experience of the moral mind — unlike Kant's noumenal realm, it is accessible through self-cultivation." }, { "title": "Self-Negation of Conscience", "text": "The moral mind must 'negate itself' — temporarily set aside moral subjectivity — to make room for cognitive objectivity, science, and democratic institutions." }, { "title": "Confucian Modernity", "text": "New Confucians argue that modernization need not mean Westernization. Confucian values (community, moral cultivation, filial devotion) can ground a distinctive Asian modernity." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Mou Zongsan", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mou-zongsan/" } ] }, { "id": "nididhyasana", "label": "Nididhyāsana", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/nididhyasana/", "description": "Nididhyāsana is sustained Vedāntic contemplation that assimilates a teaching about self and brahman after it has been heard and examined through reasoning.", "methodFamily": "contemplative", "domains": [ "mind" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Receive the teaching", "text": "Begin from an Upaniṣadic instruction learned through study and guidance." }, { "title": "Resolve conceptual doubt", "text": "Use reflection and reasoning to clarify what the instruction means." }, { "title": "Contemplate steadily", "text": "Return sustained attention to the teaching and its bearing on self-understanding." }, { "title": "Assimilate the insight", "text": "Work against habitual identification until understanding becomes stable and transformative." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Śaṅkara, §§1 and 4", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/shankara/" } ] }, { "id": "nihilist-current", "label": "Nineteenth-Century European Nihilism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/nihilist-current/", "description": "Nineteenth-century European nihilism names two distinct but historically overlapping developments rather than one shared doctrine. In Russia, the term was popularized by Turgenev's Fathers and Sons (1862) and attached to a loose anti-authoritarian current. Nietzsche later diagnosed European nihilism as a crisis in which inherited moral, religious, and metaphysical values lose their authority. He did not advocate that crisis; he sought to overcome it through a revaluation of values. This historical current is distinct from Existential Nihilism, the position that life has no intrinsic meaning or value.", "formationKind": "intellectual-current", "era": "nineteenth-century", "timePeriod": "c. 1860-1900 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "ethics", "metaphysics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Friedrich Nietzsche", "Ivan Turgenev", "Dmitri Pisarev" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Russian rejection of inherited authority", "Death of God", "Crisis of meaning", "Devaluation of values", "Overcoming nihilism" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Death of God", "text": "The Enlightenment undermined the religious foundations of morality, leaving a void that secular reason had not filled." }, { "title": "Devaluation of Values", "text": "Nihilism emerges when the highest inherited values cease to command belief or provide an authoritative purpose." }, { "title": "Overcoming Nihilism", "text": "Nietzsche treated the crisis as a challenge to create and reassess values rather than as a conclusion to accept passively." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Nihilism", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/nihilism/" } ] }, { "id": "no-self", "label": "No-Self", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/no-self/", "description": "There is no enduring, substantial self.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "mind" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Samyutta Nikaya 22.59 (Anattalakkhaṇa Sutta)" } ] }, { "id": "nominalism", "label": "Medieval Nominalism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/nominalism/", "description": "Nominalism denies the real existence of universals — 'humanity,' 'redness,' 'justice' are not things in the world but names (nomina) we apply to groups of similar particulars. William of Ockham, its most influential proponent, argued that plurality should not be posited without necessity, and used that principle of parsimony to strip away the elaborate metaphysical structures of Scholastic Realism. The familiar wording 'entities must not be multiplied beyond necessity' is a later scholastic formulation rather than Ockham's own.", "formationKind": "intellectual-current", "era": "high-medieval", "timePeriod": "c. 1080-1400 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "language", "metaphysics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Roscelin", "William of Ockham", "John Buridan", "Adam Wodeham" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Ockham's Razor", "Rejection of universals", "Particulars only", "Voluntarism", "Mental language" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Ockham's Razor", "text": "plurality is not to be posited without necessity. The simplest explanation sufficient to account for the facts is to be preferred. A powerful principle of parsimony, named after Ockham but given its familiar Latin wording by later scholastics." }, { "title": "Rejection of Universals", "text": "Only individual, particular things exist. 'Humanity' is not a thing shared by all humans but a term we use to group similar individuals — universals are in the mind, not in reality." }, { "title": "Ockham on Divine Will", "text": "Ockham paired his nominalism with a strong voluntarism: no eternal natures stand over God's will, so an act is obligatory because God commands it and God could have commanded otherwise. The two commitments reinforce each other in his work, but neither entails the other — Buridan was a nominalist who did not follow him here." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, William of Ockham", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ockham/" } ] }, { "id": "nominalism-about-universals", "label": "Nominalism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/nominalism-about-universals/", "description": "Only particular things exist; universals are concepts or names, not real entities.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "William of Ockham, Summa Logicae I.15 (universals as concepts, not things)" } ] }, { "id": "normative-ethics", "label": "The Basis of Right Action", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/normative-ethics/", "description": "What ultimately makes an action right: its duties, its consequences, or the character it expresses?", "domains": [ "ethics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Virtue Ethics", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/" } ] }, { "id": "nozickian-entitlement-theory", "label": "Entitlement Theory", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/nozickian-entitlement-theory/", "description": "A distribution is just when holdings arise through just acquisition and voluntary transfer, not when they fit a preferred pattern.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "political" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia, chapter 7" } ] }, { "id": "ordinary-lang", "label": "Ordinary Language Philosophy", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/ordinary-lang/", "description": "Ordinary Language Philosophy held that many traditional philosophical problems arise from misuses of everyday language — not from deep metaphysical puzzles but from philosophers unwittingly twisting words away from their normal functions. Rather than constructing ideal formal languages (as the logical positivists proposed), Austin, Ryle, and others argued that careful attention to how words actually work in ordinary contexts dissolves or transforms the problems.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "twentieth-century-plus", "timePeriod": "c. 1945-1970 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "language", "logic" ], "keyFigures": [ "J.L. Austin", "Gilbert Ryle", "P.F. Strawson", "John Wisdom" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Speech acts", "Ordinary use", "Category mistakes", "Performative utterances", "Therapeutic philosophy" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Speech Acts", "text": "Austin showed that language does not merely describe the world — it acts upon it. 'I promise,' 'I pronounce you married,' and 'I bet you' are performative utterances that accomplish something in their very saying, not statements that are true or false." }, { "title": "Category Mistakes", "text": "Ryle argued that the mind-body problem rests on a category mistake — treating 'the mind' as if it were a thing of the same logical type as 'the body.' Asking where the mind is, is like asking where the university is after being shown all its buildings." }, { "title": "Therapeutic Dissolution", "text": "Following the later Wittgenstein's insight that philosophical problems are often 'bewitchments' of language, ordinary language philosophers aimed not to solve traditional problems but to show them to be illusions born of linguistic confusion." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Ordinary Language Philosophy", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/ord-lang/" } ] }, { "id": "ordinary-language", "label": "Meaning as Use", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/ordinary-language/", "description": "For a large class of expressions, meaning is their use in the language.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "language" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations (1953), §43" } ] }, { "id": "ordinary-language-analysis", "label": "Ordinary-Language Analysis", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/ordinary-language-analysis/", "description": "Ordinary-language analysis examines how expressions work in everyday contexts to diagnose philosophical confusion and clarify the concepts at issue.", "methodFamily": "analytical", "domains": [ "language" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Identify the troublesome expression", "text": "Locate the word or phrase on which the philosophical problem turns." }, { "title": "Collect ordinary uses", "text": "Compare how competent speakers use it across concrete situations." }, { "title": "Mark distinctions", "text": "Notice contrasts, exceptions, and conditions that an abstract formulation suppresses." }, { "title": "Reframe the problem", "text": "Decide whether the puzzle should be clarified, divided, or dissolved in light of those uses." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "J. L. Austin, 'A Plea for Excuses,' Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 57 (1956–57)" } ] }, { "id": "patristics", "label": "Patristics", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/patristics/", "description": "Patristic philosophy encompasses the thought of the Church Fathers who synthesized Christian theology with Greek philosophy — especially Neoplatonism and Stoicism. Augustine of Hippo, the most influential figure, developed profound analyses of time, memory, evil, free will, and the relationship between faith and reason that shaped Western thought for a millennium.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "late-antiquity", "timePeriod": "c. 100-750 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "epistemology", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Augustine of Hippo", "Origen", "Basil of Caesarea", "Gregory of Nyssa", "John Chrysostom" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Faith and reason", "Original sin", "Divine illumination", "Trinitarian theology", "Free will and grace" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Faith Seeking Understanding", "text": "Augustine established the model: faith precedes but does not exclude reason. Philosophy serves theology, and the tools of Greek thought illuminate Christian doctrine." }, { "title": "The Problem of Evil", "text": "Evil is not a positive substance but a privation of good (privatio boni). God permits evil because free will — which makes genuine love possible — also makes sin possible." }, { "title": "Divine Illumination", "text": "Just as the sun enables sight, God illuminates the mind to grasp eternal truths. Human knowledge ultimately depends on divine light." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Augustine", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/augustine/" } ] }, { "id": "phenomenological-method", "label": "Phenomenological Reduction", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/phenomenological-method/", "description": "Phenomenological reduction brackets ordinary existential commitments so that the inquirer can examine how objects and world are given in experience.", "methodFamily": "experiential", "domains": [ "epistemology", "mind" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Identify the natural attitude", "text": "Notice the ordinary commitment that the world simply exists as taken for granted." }, { "title": "Perform the epoché", "text": "Suspend use of that commitment without denying the world's existence." }, { "title": "Redirect attention", "text": "Examine the intentional relation between experience and what appears in it." }, { "title": "Describe structures", "text": "Articulate recurring features of givenness without immediately reducing them to external causes." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edmund Husserl, §6", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/husserl/" } ] }, { "id": "phenomenology", "label": "Phenomenology", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/phenomenology/", "description": "Phenomenology, founded by Husserl, is the rigorous study of the structures of consciousness and experience. By 'bracketing' our natural assumptions about the external world (epoché), we can describe how objects appear to consciousness. Heidegger transformed this into a fundamental ontology of Being, while Merleau-Ponty grounded it in embodied, perceptual experience.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "twentieth-century-plus", "timePeriod": "c. 1900 CE onward", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "epistemology", "mind" ], "keyFigures": [ "Edmund Husserl", "Martin Heidegger", "Maurice Merleau-Ponty", "Emmanuel Levinas" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Intentionality", "Epoché (phenomenological reduction)", "Lifeworld (Lebenswelt)", "Being-in-the-world", "Dasein" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Intentionality", "text": "Consciousness is always consciousness of something. The mind is not a container but a directed activity — every mental act (perceiving, imagining, judging) is aimed at an object." }, { "title": "Phenomenological Reduction", "text": "Husserl's epoché: suspend ('bracket') all assumptions about whether objects really exist, and focus purely on how they are given to consciousness." }, { "title": "Being-in-the-World", "text": "Heidegger argued that our primary relation to the world is not theoretical contemplation but practical engagement — we are always already situated in a meaningful context of tools, projects, and others." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Phenomenology", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/phenomenology/" } ] }, { "id": "phil-will", "label": "Philosophies of the Will", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/phil-will/", "description": "Philosophies of the Will is a comparative historical grouping for Schopenhauer's metaphysics of will and the divergent systems that refashioned it later in the nineteenth century. It does not name a doctrine shared in full: Hartmann combined unconscious will with purposive idea, while Nietzsche first worked within and then sharply criticized Schopenhauer's metaphysical and ethical commitments.", "formationKind": "intellectual-current", "era": "nineteenth-century", "timePeriod": "c. 1818-1900 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Arthur Schopenhauer", "Friedrich Nietzsche", "Eduard von Hartmann" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Will as thing-in-itself", "World as representation", "Will to power", "Pessimism", "Denial of the will", "Overcoming and self-creation" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Will as Thing-in-Itself (Schopenhauer)", "text": "Kant's unknowable noumenon is actually Will — not rational purpose but blind, irrational striving. Everything in nature, from gravity to human desire, is a manifestation of this Will. Liberation comes through aesthetic contemplation, compassion, and ultimately denial of the will to live." }, { "title": "Will to Power (Nietzsche)", "text": "Nietzsche recast willing in terms of competing drives and will to power while rejecting Schopenhauer's unitary metaphysical Will and ideal of its denial." }, { "title": "The Unconscious Will (Hartmann)", "text": "Eduard von Hartmann synthesised Schopenhauer's Will with Hegel's Idea, proposing an unconscious absolute that strives blindly but unfolds with logical structure — a bridge between pessimist metaphysics and systematic philosophy." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Sebastian Gardner, 'Post-Schopenhauerian Metaphysics: Hartmann, Mainländer, Bahnsen, and Nietzsche,' in The Oxford Handbook of Schopenhauer (Oxford University Press, 2020), pp. 545–578", "url": "https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10169108/" } ] }, { "id": "physicalism", "label": "Physicalism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/physicalism/", "description": "Everything mental is physical or wholly grounded in the physical; no immaterial mind is required.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "mind" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Physicalism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/physicalism/" } ] }, { "id": "platonic-realism", "label": "Platonic Realism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/platonic-realism/", "description": "Universals are intelligible Forms independent of the changing particulars that participate in them.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Plato, Republic and Phaedo" } ] }, { "id": "platonism", "label": "Platonism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/platonism/", "description": "Platonism is a continuing philosophical tradition rooted in Plato's dialogues and in the community that gathered around his Academy from the late 390s BCE. Plato's successors, including Speusippus and Xenocrates, developed the tradition in different directions rather than simply repeating one fixed doctrine. Later philosophers in many periods have likewise identified themselves as Platonists.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "classical", "timePeriod": "c. 390 BCE onward", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "aesthetic", "epistemology", "metaphysics", "political" ], "keyFigures": [ "Plato", "Speusippus", "Xenocrates" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Theory of Forms", "Allegory of the Cave", "Tripartite soul", "Philosopher-kings", "Anamnesis" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Forms", "text": "Plato's middle dialogues distinguish intelligible Forms from the changing particulars that participate in them; later Platonists developed and disputed how this account should be understood." }, { "title": "Allegory of the Cave", "text": "The *Republic* compares ordinary understanding to prisoners seeing shadows and philosophical education to an ascent toward the light of the Good." }, { "title": "Tripartite Soul", "text": "The *Republic* distinguishes reason, spirit, and appetite, and links justice to their ordered relation." }, { "title": "Anamnesis", "text": "The *Meno* and *Phaedo* present learning as recollection, connecting inquiry with the soul's prior knowledge." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "John Dillon, The Roots of Platonism: The Origins and Chief Features of a Philosophical Tradition (Cambridge University Press, 2019), Introduction, pp. 1–4", "url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108584906.002" }, { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Plato: The Academy, §§2 and 4", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/plato-academy/" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Plato, introduction", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/" } ] }, { "id": "pluralists", "label": "Pluralists", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/pluralists/", "description": "The Pluralists responded to Parmenides' challenge by arguing that reality consists of multiple fundamental substances rather than one. Empedocles proposed four eternal roots (earth, water, air, fire) driven by Love and Strife, while Anaxagoras posited infinitely many seed-substances organized by a cosmic Mind (Nous).", "formationKind": "intellectual-current", "era": "classical", "timePeriod": "c. 500-428 BCE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "metaphysics", "nature" ], "keyFigures": [ "Empedocles", "Anaxagoras" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Four elements", "Love and Strife", "Nous (Mind)", "Cosmic cycles" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Four Elements", "text": "Empedocles' earth, water, air, and fire are eternal and unchanging; all change is mixture and separation driven by the cosmic forces of Love (attraction) and Strife (repulsion)." }, { "title": "Nous (Mind)", "text": "Anaxagoras introduced Mind as an ordering principle — infinite, self-ruling, and unmixed — that initiated cosmic rotation and continues to govern the arrangement of matter." }, { "title": "Response to Parmenides", "text": "Both thinkers accepted that nothing comes from nothing but showed that change can be explained as the rearrangement of eternally existing elements." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Empedocles", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/empedocles/" } ] }, { "id": "political", "label": "Political Philosophy", "type": "domain", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/political/", "description": "Questions about justice, legitimacy, power, and social order.", "domains": [], "sources": [ { "citation": "Controlled domain vocabulary (docs/taxonomy.md)" } ] }, { "id": "positivism", "label": "Positivism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/positivism/", "description": "Positivism holds that genuine knowledge is limited to what can be observed, measured, and verified by the scientific method. Auguste Comte proposed that humanity progresses through three stages — theological, metaphysical, and finally positive (scientific) — and sought to found a 'social physics' (sociology) that would bring scientific rigor to the study of society. John Stuart Mill corresponded with Comte and took up part of his programme, but Auguste Comte and Positivism (1865) is substantially a critique, and Mill rejected the later system outright; he belongs to this entry as a critical interlocutor rather than as a positivist.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "nineteenth-century", "timePeriod": "c. 1830-1900 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "epistemology", "science" ], "keyFigures": [ "Auguste Comte", "Ernst Mach" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Law of three stages", "Hierarchy of the sciences", "Anti-metaphysics", "Social physics", "Scientific method as sole knowledge" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Law of Three Stages", "text": "Human thought evolves from theological (divine explanations) through metaphysical (abstract forces) to positive (scientific laws based on observation). Each stage replaces the last." }, { "title": "Anti-Metaphysics", "text": "Questions about ultimate reality, first causes, or essences lie beyond the reach of positive knowledge and belong to a superseded stage of thought. Science describes regularities in observable phenomena — nothing more is needed or possible." }, { "title": "Unity of Science", "text": "All genuine sciences share a single method. Sociology, as the 'queen of sciences,' applies this method to human society, enabling rational social planning." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Auguste Comte", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/comte/" } ] }, { "id": "post-struct", "label": "Post-Structuralism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/post-struct/", "description": "Post-Structuralism radicalizes and critiques Structuralism's assumptions, arguing that structures are not stable, universal, or self-contained. Derrida showed that meaning is always deferred and unstable (differance), Foucault analyzed how discourse produces power and knowledge, and Deleuze developed a philosophy of difference, multiplicity, and becoming that resists all totalizing systems.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "twentieth-century-plus", "timePeriod": "c. 1966 CE onward", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "language", "political" ], "keyFigures": [ "Jacques Derrida", "Michel Foucault", "Gilles Deleuze", "Julia Kristeva" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Differance", "Discourse and power", "Deconstruction", "Rhizome", "Genealogy" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Differance", "text": "Derrida's neologism: meaning is always deferred, never fully present. Every sign refers to other signs in an endless chain — there is no transcendental signified anchoring the system." }, { "title": "Power/Knowledge", "text": "Foucault: power is not merely repressive but productive — it produces knowledge, truth, and subjects. What counts as 'true' is shaped by systems of power." }, { "title": "Rhizome", "text": "Deleuze and Guattari's alternative to hierarchical thinking: knowledge and reality are rhizomatic — non-hierarchical, multiply connected, with no center or foundation." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Gary Gutting, French Philosophy in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge University Press, 2001)" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Postmodernism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/postmodernism/" } ] }, { "id": "postmodernism", "label": "Postmodernism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/postmodernism/", "description": "Postmodernism is a contested umbrella for diverse critical, strategic, and rhetorical practices rather than a unified movement with one doctrine. Authors grouped under the term have challenged fixed identity, linear historical progress, epistemic certainty, and unified meaning, although their projects differ and some resisted the label. Lyotard defined the postmodern as \"incredulity toward metanarratives,\" while Baudrillard developed a distinct account of simulacra and hyperreality.", "formationKind": "intellectual-current", "era": "twentieth-century-plus", "timePeriod": "c. 1979 CE onward", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "epistemology", "language" ], "keyFigures": [ "Jean-Francois Lyotard", "Jean Baudrillard", "Linda Hutcheon", "Gianni Vattimo" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Incredulity toward metanarratives", "Simulacra", "Hyperreality", "Pastiche" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Incredulity toward Metanarratives", "text": "Lyotard used this formulation for skepticism toward the large narratives that legitimate knowledge and institutions, including stories of progress and emancipation." }, { "title": "Simulacra and Hyperreality", "text": "Baudrillard: in consumer society, copies without originals (simulacra) replace reality. Disneyland, media, advertising — the simulation becomes more real than the real." }, { "title": "High and Popular Culture", "text": "In postmodern aesthetics, distinctions between high art and popular culture, original and copy, or depth and surface are often blurred or critically reworked." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Postmodernism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/postmodernism/" } ] }, { "id": "pragmatic-inquiry", "label": "Pragmatic Inquiry", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/pragmatic-inquiry/", "description": "Pragmatic inquiry clarifies a belief through its conceivable practical consequences and tests it within a self-correcting process of experience and investigation.", "methodFamily": "empirical", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Begin from real doubt", "text": "Identify a disrupted expectation or unsettled problem that calls for inquiry." }, { "title": "Trace practical bearings", "text": "Ask what experiential differences accepting the claim would make." }, { "title": "Test through consequences", "text": "Compare those expectations with action, observation, and further argument." }, { "title": "Revise communally", "text": "Keep the result open to correction by later inquiry and other investigators." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Pragmatism, §§2.1 and 4.2", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pragmatism/" } ] }, { "id": "pragmatism", "label": "Pragmatism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/pragmatism/", "description": "Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that broadly treats knowing the world as inseparable from acting within it. Peirce developed the pragmatic maxim to clarify concepts through their conceivable practical bearings; James adapted pragmatic ideas in his accounts of experience and truth; and Dewey made inquiry, education, democracy, and social reform central. Their disagreements about realism, truth, and inquiry prevent any single formula about practical success from defining the tradition as a whole.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "nineteenth-century", "timePeriod": "c. 1870-1950 CE", "regions": [ "north-america" ], "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "keyFigures": [ "Charles Sanders Peirce", "William James", "John Dewey" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Pragmatic maxim", "Plural pragmatist accounts of truth", "Fallibilism", "Instrumentalism", "Experience and inquiry" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Pragmatic Maxim", "text": "Peirce: to clarify an idea, consider what practical effects its object might have. 'Our conception of these effects is the whole of our conception of the object.'" }, { "title": "Different Accounts of Truth", "text": "Peirce connected truth with the long-run goal of inquiry, James stressed how true ideas prove themselves within experience, and Dewey emphasized tested or warranted assertion. These views overlap but are not one theory of whatever happens to be useful." }, { "title": "Inquiry as Problem-Solving", "text": "Dewey: thinking begins with a felt difficulty. Through inquiry — observation, hypothesis, experiment — we transform indeterminate situations into resolved ones." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Pragmatism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pragmatism/" } ] }, { "id": "pragmatist-truth", "label": "Pragmatist Theory of Truth", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/pragmatist-truth/", "description": "A belief is true if it works — if it is what inquiry would ultimately settle on and reliably guides successful action.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Pragmatic Theory of Truth", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-pragmatic/" }, { "citation": "William James, Pragmatism (1907)" } ] }, { "id": "prasanga", "label": "Prasaṅga", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/prasanga/", "description": "Prasaṅga examines a thesis by drawing out consequences of its own assumptions, often without replacing it with an independent metaphysical counter-thesis.", "methodFamily": "dialogical", "domains": [ "metaphysics", "mind" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Take up the thesis", "text": "Begin from the opponent's stated claim and commitments." }, { "title": "Trace its consequences", "text": "Apply the claim consistently to the case under examination." }, { "title": "Show the difficulty", "text": "Reveal contradiction, circularity, regress, or another consequence the thesis cannot sustain." }, { "title": "Withhold a reified alternative", "text": "Avoid turning the critique into another claim about an intrinsically existing reality." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Logic in Classical Indian Philosophy, §3.2", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-india/" }, { "citation": "Mark Siderits and Shōryū Katsura, Nāgārjuna's Middle Way: Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (Wisdom Publications, 2013)" } ] }, { "id": "process", "label": "Process Metaphysics", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/process/", "description": "Processes and becoming, rather than static substances, are fundamental to reality.", "positionLevel": "family", "domains": [], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Process Philosophy", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/process-philosophy/" } ] }, { "id": "process-phil", "label": "Process Philosophy", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/process-phil/", "description": "Process Philosophy is a diverse current united by treating processes, events, or becoming as metaphysically basic rather than reducing them to changes in static substances. Bergson's late nineteenth-century account of duration preceded Whitehead's system of actual occasions; Whitehead and Hartshorne later developed different systematic forms of process metaphysics.", "formationKind": "intellectual-current", "era": "nineteenth-century", "timePeriod": "c. 1889 CE onward", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "metaphysics", "nature" ], "keyFigures": [ "Alfred North Whitehead", "Charles Hartshorne", "Henri Bergson (precursor)" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Actual occasions", "Creativity", "Prehension", "Dipolar theism", "Duration (Bergson)" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Process Over Substance", "text": "The basic units of reality are not enduring things but momentary events (actual occasions) that arise, experience, and perish — reality is a process of becoming, not a collection of beings." }, { "title": "Prehension", "text": "Each actual occasion 'prehends' (grasps, incorporates) previous occasions, creating continuity. Experience is not limited to humans — it extends to the most basic events in nature." }, { "title": "Creative Advance", "text": "The universe is fundamentally creative — each moment brings genuine novelty. Process philosophy rejects determinism and embraces the real openness of the future." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Process Philosophy", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/process-philosophy/" }, { "citation": "Henri Bergson, Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness (1889)" } ] }, { "id": "proof-theoretic-consequence", "label": "Proof-Theoretic Consequence", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/proof-theoretic-consequence/", "description": "A conclusion is a logical consequence of premises when there is a valid proof that establishes it from those premises through meaning-governed rules of inference.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "logic" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "D. Prawitz, 'Logical Consequence from a Constructivist Point of View', in The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic (2005)" } ] }, { "id": "protagorean-relativism", "label": "Protagorean Relativism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/protagorean-relativism/", "description": "Man is the measure of all things: what seems true to a person is true for that person, and there is no further fact about what is true absolutely.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Relativism, §3", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/relativism/" }, { "citation": "Plato, Theaetetus 152a" } ] }, { "id": "psychological-continuity", "label": "Psychological Continuity", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/psychological-continuity/", "description": "A person persists over time through overlapping chains of memory and psychological connection.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "mind" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, II.xxvii (Of Identity and Diversity)" }, { "citation": "Derek Parfit, Reasons and Persons (Oxford University Press, 1984), Part Three" } ] }, { "id": "pyrrhonian-suspension", "label": "Pyrrhonian Suspension", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/pyrrhonian-suspension/", "description": "For every claim an equally strong opposing claim can be found, so one should suspend judgment (epoché) on all matters beyond how things appear.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism I" } ] }, { "id": "pyrrhonian-suspension-method", "label": "Pyrrhonian Opposition of Arguments", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/pyrrhonian-suspension-method/", "description": "Pyrrhonian suspension sets opposing appearances or arguments against one another and withholds assent when neither side is more convincing.", "methodFamily": "dialogical", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Formulate both sides", "text": "Consider a claim and a genuinely conflicting alternative." }, { "title": "Set out the opposition", "text": "Gather appearances and arguments that bear on each side." }, { "title": "Assess their force", "text": "Determine whether either account is more convincing than the other." }, { "title": "Suspend assent", "text": "When the considerations remain equipollent, affirm neither conclusion and continue investigating." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Ancient Skepticism, §4", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism-ancient/" } ] }, { "id": "pyrrhonism", "label": "Pyrrhonism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/pyrrhonism/", "description": "Pyrrhonism holds that for every argument an equally strong counter-argument can be found, and therefore the wise course is to suspend judgment (epoché) on all matters of belief. Paradoxically, this suspension brings the very tranquility (ataraxia) that dogmatic philosophers seek through their theories.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "classical", "timePeriod": "c. 330 BCE - 200 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "keyFigures": [ "Pyrrho of Elis", "Timon of Phlius", "Sextus Empiricus", "Aenesidemus" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Epoché (suspension of judgment)", "Isostheneia (equal force of arguments)", "Ataraxia through doubt", "Ten Modes" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Epoché", "text": "Suspension of judgment: when opposing arguments appear equally balanced, the Pyrrhonist neither affirms nor denies but suspends belief entirely." }, { "title": "The Ten Modes", "text": "Aenesidemus cataloged ten types of disagreement (cultural, perceptual, circumstantial) that demonstrate the impossibility of reaching certain knowledge about how things really are." }, { "title": "Ataraxia through Skepticism", "text": "Tranquility follows suspension of judgment as a shadow follows the body — when we stop insisting on dogmatic beliefs, anxiety dissolves." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Ancient Skepticism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism-ancient/" } ] }, { "id": "pythagorean", "label": "Pythagoreanism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/pythagorean/", "description": "Pythagoreanism developed from the community and way of life associated with Pythagoras of Samos. Early evidence links that tradition with rules of conduct, the transmigration of souls, and reverence for number, while developed accounts of mathematical cosmology belong especially to fifth-century Pythagoreans such as Philolaus. Later sources magnified Pythagoras's role, so discoveries and doctrines must not automatically be assigned to him personally.", "formationKind": "school", "era": "ancient", "timePeriod": "c. 570-300 BCE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "logic", "metaphysics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Pythagoras", "Philolaus", "Archytas", "Theano" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Number and cosmic order", "Musical concords and ratios", "Transmigration of souls", "Pythagorean way of life" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Number and Order", "text": "Fifth-century Pythagoreans, especially Philolaus, developed accounts in which limiters, unlimiteds, harmony, and number make an ordered cosmos intelligible. These developed teachings should not be read back wholesale into Pythagoras." }, { "title": "Music and Ratio", "text": "The tradition connected musical concords with whole-number ratios. The earliest secure evidence for demonstrating these relations belongs to later Pythagoreans, so the discovery cannot confidently be credited to Pythagoras himself." }, { "title": "Transmigration and a Way of Life", "text": "Early testimony associates Pythagoras and his followers with transmigration of souls and a disciplined communal life. The surviving evidence does not establish a detailed theory of the soul or a complete program of spiritual purification taught by Pythagoras himself." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Pythagoras", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pythagoras/" } ] }, { "id": "rationalism", "label": "Continental Rationalism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/rationalism/", "description": "Continental Rationalism holds that reason, not sensory experience, is the primary source of knowledge. Descartes founded modern philosophy with his method of radical doubt, arriving at the certainty of 'I think, therefore I am.' Spinoza and Leibniz extended rationalist metaphysics in radically different directions — Spinoza toward monism, Leibniz toward pluralism.", "formationKind": "intellectual-current", "era": "early-modern", "timePeriod": "c. 1600-1750 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "epistemology", "metaphysics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Rene Descartes", "Baruch Spinoza", "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz", "Nicolas Malebranche" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Cogito ergo sum", "Innate ideas", "Clear and distinct perception", "Substance", "Method of doubt" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Cogito Ergo Sum", "text": "Descartes's foundational insight: even if an evil demon deceives me about everything, the very act of doubting proves that I, the thinker, must exist." }, { "title": "Innate Ideas", "text": "The mind possesses ideas not derived from experience — concepts of God, substance, infinity, and mathematical truths are innate, placed in us by God or inherent in reason." }, { "title": "Method of Doubt", "text": "Systematically doubt everything that can possibly be doubted — only what survives this radical skepticism can serve as a foundation for certain knowledge." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Early Modern Rationalism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-early-modern/" } ] }, { "id": "rawlsian-difference-principle", "label": "Rawls's Difference Principle", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/rawlsian-difference-principle/", "description": "Social and economic inequalities are just only when fair institutions make them benefit the least advantaged.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "political" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "John Rawls, A Theory of Justice, §§11–17" } ] }, { "id": "realism", "label": "Realism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/realism/", "description": "At least some relevant facts or entities exist independently of our beliefs, descriptions, or conceptual schemes.", "positionLevel": "family", "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Realism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/realism/" } ] }, { "id": "realism-about-universals", "label": "Realism About Universals", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/realism-about-universals/", "description": "Universals are real rather than merely names or concepts.", "positionLevel": "family", "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Plato, Republic and Phaedo; Aristotle, Metaphysics" } ] }, { "id": "reductio-ad-absurdum", "label": "Reductio ad Absurdum", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/reductio-ad-absurdum/", "description": "Reductio ad absurdum tests a proposition by assuming it for argument's sake and deriving a contradiction or another consequence that gives reason to reject the assumption.", "methodFamily": "argumentative", "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Assume the claim", "text": "Treat the proposition under examination as true without yet endorsing it." }, { "title": "Derive consequences", "text": "Follow what the assumption commits its defender to accepting." }, { "title": "Expose the failure", "text": "Identify a contradiction, impossibility, or consequence the argument has independently shown to be unacceptable." }, { "title": "Reject or revise", "text": "Withdraw the assumption or qualify it enough to avoid the demonstrated result." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Reductio ad Absurdum", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/reductio/" } ] }, { "id": "reflective-equilibrium", "label": "Reflective Equilibrium", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/reflective-equilibrium/", "description": "Reflective equilibrium revises considered judgments, general principles, and relevant background theories until they support one another coherently.", "methodFamily": "argumentative", "domains": [ "political" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Gather considered judgments", "text": "Begin with case judgments made under conditions suitable for reflection." }, { "title": "Formulate principles", "text": "Identify general rules that could explain and organize those judgments." }, { "title": "Locate conflicts", "text": "Compare judgments, principles, arguments, and relevant background theories." }, { "title": "Revise in either direction", "text": "Change a judgment, principle, or theory where doing so improves the whole." }, { "title": "Test the wider view", "text": "Consider serious alternatives before treating the resulting coherence as adequate." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Reflective Equilibrium", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reflective-equilibrium/" } ] }, { "id": "relativism", "label": "Relativism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/relativism/", "description": "Truth and categories are relative to perspective, language, or power.", "positionLevel": "family", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Relativism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/relativism/" } ] }, { "id": "religion", "label": "Philosophy of Religion", "type": "domain", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/religion/", "description": "Questions about revelation, divinity, faith, and ultimate reality.", "domains": [], "sources": [ { "citation": "Controlled domain vocabulary (docs/taxonomy.md)" } ] }, { "id": "research-programmes", "label": "Progressive Research Programmes", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/research-programmes/", "description": "What is scientific is not a single theory but a series of them, and the series earns the title by predicting novel facts rather than only absorbing known ones.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "epistemology", "science" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Imre Lakatos, 'Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes' (1970)" } ] }, { "id": "romanticism", "label": "Romanticism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/romanticism/", "description": "Philosophical Romanticism made imagination, feeling, art, and organic nature central to thought while both continuing and criticizing Enlightenment commitments to reason. It was contemporaneously entangled with German Idealism: Romantic and Idealist authors shared post-Kantian questions about subjectivity, nature, and the Absolute, but developed different accounts of whether the whole could be grasped through systematic concepts. 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It distinguishes a plurality of conscious purushas from unconscious prakriti and explains liberation through discriminative knowledge of their difference. Kapila is the tradition's legendary founder; earlier ideas now called proto-Samkhya are antecedents, not the classical school itself.", "formationKind": "school", "era": "late-antiquity", "timePeriod": "c. 350-450 CE", "regions": [ "south-asia" ], "domains": [ "metaphysics", "mind" ], "keyFigures": [ "Kapila (legendary founder)", "Ishvarakrishna" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Purusha (consciousness)", "Prakriti (nature/matter)", "Three gunas", "Dualism", "Evolution of categories" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Purusha and Prakriti", "text": "Classical Samkhya distinguishes many eternal purushas (pure, inactive consciousnesses) from a single eternal prakriti (active, unconscious nature). Their conjunction accounts for experience and the evolution of the manifest world." }, { "title": "Three Gunas", "text": "All of material nature is composed of three qualities (gunas): sattva (light, goodness), rajas (activity, passion), and tamas (darkness, inertia). Their interplay drives all change." }, { "title": "Discriminative Knowledge", "text": "Liberation (kaivalya) occurs when purusha recognizes its complete distinction from prakriti — 'I am not this body, these thoughts, these emotions.'" } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Gerald James Larson, Classical Sāṃkhya (Motilal Banarsidass, 1979)" }, { "citation": "Oxford Bibliographies, Sāṃkhya and Philosophical Yoga", "url": "https://academic.oup.com/reference/62357/reference-article-abstract/554515166" }, { "citation": "James Kimball, 'The Soteriological Role of the ṛṣi Kapila, According to the Yuktidīpikā' (Journal of Indian Philosophy 41, 2013)", "url": "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10781-013-9199-y" } ] }, { "id": "scholastic-disputation", "label": "Scholastic Disputation", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/scholastic-disputation/", "description": "Scholastic disputation examines a stated question by presenting objections, authorities, a reasoned determination, and replies to the objections.", "methodFamily": "dialogical", "domains": [ "metaphysics", "religion" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "State the question", "text": "Formulate a precise issue that admits opposed answers." }, { "title": "Present objections", "text": "Give serious arguments against the position to be defended." }, { "title": "Set out relevant authority", "text": "Record a contrary consideration from an accepted text or thinker where appropriate." }, { "title": "Determine the question", "text": "Offer the central argument for the answer." }, { "title": "Reply in order", "text": "Return to each objection and show why it does not overturn the determination." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Literary Forms of Medieval Philosophy, §2.6 'Disputation, Quaestio, Quodlibetal Question'", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/medieval-literary/" } ] }, { "id": "scholastic-realism", "label": "Scholastic Realism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/scholastic-realism/", "description": "Universal cognition has a real foundation in things and is not explained by universal words alone.", "positionLevel": "family", "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Medieval Problem of Universals", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/universals-medieval/" } ] }, { "id": "scholasticism", "label": "Scholasticism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/scholasticism/", "description": "Scholasticism was the dominant intellectual method of medieval European universities, seeking to reconcile Christian revelation with Aristotelian philosophy through rigorous logical analysis. Thomas Aquinas, its greatest figure, synthesized faith and reason into a comprehensive system, arguing that natural reason and divine revelation are complementary paths to truth.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "high-medieval", "timePeriod": "c. 1100-1500 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "logic", "metaphysics", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Thomas Aquinas", "Anselm of Canterbury", "Peter Abelard", "Duns Scotus", "William of Ockham" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Faith and reason harmony", "Natural law", "Five Ways (proofs of God)", "Universals debate", "Quaestiones method" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Quaestiones Method", "text": "Scholastic inquiry proceeds through structured disputation: a question is posed, objections listed, a determination given, and each objection answered — a rigorous dialectical method." }, { "title": "Aquinas's Five Ways", "text": "Five arguments for God's existence from motion, causation, contingency, degrees of perfection, and teleology — grounding natural theology in Aristotelian philosophy." }, { "title": "Natural Law", "text": "Aquinas argued that moral law is discoverable by reason, not only by revelation. The natural law participates in God's eternal law and is accessible to all rational beings." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Medieval Philosophy", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/medieval-philosophy/" } ] }, { "id": "science", "label": "Philosophy of Science", "type": "domain", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/science/", "description": "Questions about scientific knowledge, explanation, method, evidence, and the structure of scientific change.", "domains": [], "sources": [ { "citation": "Controlled domain vocabulary (docs/taxonomy.md)" } ] }, { "id": "science-demarcation", "label": "Science and Demarcation", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/science-demarcation/", "description": "What distinguishes scientific knowledge from metaphysics, ideology, speculation, or ordinary belief?", "domains": [ "epistemology", "science" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Karl Popper", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/popper/" } ] }, { "id": "self-existence", "label": "Existence of the Self", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/self-existence/", "description": "Is there an enduring, substantial self at all, or only a stream of changing states?", "domains": [ "mind" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Personal Identity", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/identity-personal/" } ] }, { "id": "self-identity", "label": "Persistence of the Self", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/self-identity/", "description": "What makes a person the same self across change, memory, embodiment, and time?", "domains": [ "mind" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Personal Identity", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/identity-personal/" } ] }, { "id": "sentientist-moral-standing", "label": "Sentientist Moral Standing", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/sentientist-moral-standing/", "description": "Direct moral standing extends to sentient beings because their capacity for suffering or enjoyment gives them interests that count; nonsentient entities lack standing in their own right.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "ethics", "nature" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (1975), ch. 1" } ] }, { "id": "sitting-in-forgetfulness", "label": "Sitting in Forgetfulness", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/sitting-in-forgetfulness/", "description": "Sitting in forgetfulness (zuòwàng) is a Daoist contemplative practice of releasing fixed bodily, sensory, and conceptual identifications to become open to transformation by the Way.", "methodFamily": "contemplative", "domains": [], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Settle into stillness", "text": "Withdraw from ordinary projects and reactive activity." }, { "title": "Release bodily fixation", "text": "Let attachment to bodily form and status recede." }, { "title": "Let discriminating knowledge fall away", "text": "Stop imposing fixed divisions and evaluations on experience." }, { "title": "Remain open to transformation", "text": "Allow responsive activity to arise without forced control." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Zhuangzi, ch. 6, 'The Great and Venerable Teacher' (Yan Hui's account of zuòwàng)" }, { "citation": "Livia Kohn, Sitting in Oblivion: The Heart of Daoist Meditation (Three Pines Press, 2010)" } ] }, { "id": "skepticism", "label": "Epistemic Skepticism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/skepticism/", "description": "Suspend judgment: knowledge claims outrun their warrant.", "positionLevel": "family", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Skepticism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism/" } ] }, { "id": "social-contract", "label": "Social Contract Tradition", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/social-contract/", "description": "The Social Contract tradition unites early modern thinkers who grounded political authority in the voluntary agreement of free individuals. Hobbes argued that without a sovereign, life would be 'nasty, brutish, and short.' Locke derived natural rights to life, liberty, and property. Rousseau sought a form of association that preserves individual freedom through the 'general will.' Together they laid the foundations of modern democratic theory.", "formationKind": "intellectual-current", "era": "early-modern", "timePeriod": "c. 1651-1800 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "ethics", "political" ], "keyFigures": [ "Thomas Hobbes", "John Locke", "Jean-Jacques Rousseau", "Hugo Grotius" ], "keyConcepts": [ "State of nature", "Consent of the governed", "Sovereign authority", "Natural rights", "General will" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "State of Nature", "text": "A thought experiment: what would life be like without government? Hobbes saw war; Locke saw freedom constrained by inconveniences; Rousseau saw noble simplicity corrupted by civilization." }, { "title": "Consent of the Governed", "text": "Legitimate political authority derives not from divine right or force but from the rational consent of the people who are governed." }, { "title": "Natural Rights", "text": "Locke argued that individuals possess inherent rights to life, liberty, and property that no government may violate — ideas that directly shaped the American and French revolutions." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Social Contract Theory", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/soc-cont/" } ] }, { "id": "socratic-method", "label": "Socratic Elenchus", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/socratic-method/", "description": "Socratic elenchus tests an interlocutor's claim through questions that draw out its commitments and expose inconsistency among the answers.", "methodFamily": "dialogical", "domains": [ "epistemology", "ethics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Socrates" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Elenchus (cross-examination)", "Question and answer", "Testing definitions", "Exposing contradictions" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Elicit a claim", "text": "Ask the interlocutor to state a definition or belief they endorse." }, { "title": "Secure related commitments", "text": "Use questions to establish further premises the interlocutor accepts." }, { "title": "Derive a conflict", "text": "Show that those commitments contradict the original claim or one another." }, { "title": "Revise and continue", "text": "Withdraw or refine the failed proposal and test the new account." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Plato, early dialogues (elenctic method)" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Socrates", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/socrates/" } ] }, { "id": "sophism", "label": "Sophism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/sophism/", "description": "The Sophists were itinerant teachers in classical Athens who taught rhetoric, argumentation, and the art of persuasion for a fee. Far from mere charlatans, thinkers like Protagoras and Gorgias raised profound questions about the nature of truth, the conventionality of morals, and the power of language to shape reality.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "classical", "timePeriod": "c. 450-380 BCE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "epistemology", "language" ], "keyFigures": [ "Protagoras", "Gorgias", "Hippias", "Thrasymachus" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Relativism", "Rhetoric", "Nomos vs. Physis", "Man is the measure" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Relativism", "text": "Protagoras declared 'man is the measure of all things' — truth and value are relative to the perceiver, not fixed by nature or the gods." }, { "title": "Nomos vs. Physis", "text": "The Sophists debated whether justice, morality, and law (nomos) are natural or merely conventional — a question that remains central to political philosophy." }, { "title": "Power of Rhetoric", "text": "Gorgias demonstrated that language can make the weaker argument appear stronger, raising questions about the relationship between persuasion, truth, and power." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Sophists", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sophists/" } ] }, { "id": "speaker-meaning", "label": "Speaker-Meaning", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/speaker-meaning/", "description": "An expression means what it does because of what speakers intend to communicate by it, so meaning in a language is built out of the intentions behind particular utterances.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "language" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "H. P. Grice, 'Meaning', Philosophical Review 66 (1957)" } ] }, { "id": "speculative-realism", "label": "Speculative Realism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/speculative-realism/", "description": "Speculative Realism is a diverse movement united by its rejection of 'correlationism' — the post-Kantian assumption that we can only know the correlation between thought and world, never reality in itself. Meillassoux argues we can access the absolute through mathematics, while Harman's Object-Oriented Ontology insists that objects have a hidden reality that withdraws from all relations.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "twentieth-century-plus", "timePeriod": "c. 2007 CE onward", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Quentin Meillassoux", "Graham Harman", "Ray Brassier", "Iain Hamilton Grant" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Correlationism", "Object-oriented ontology", "Ancestrality", "Withdrawal", "The Great Outdoors" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Against Correlationism", "text": "Meillassoux: since Kant, philosophy has been trapped in 'correlationism' — the view that we can only know the thought-world correlation. Speculative Realism breaks free to think the absolute." }, { "title": "Object-Oriented Ontology", "text": "Harman: objects (of all kinds) have a hidden depth that withdraws from every relation. No object is exhausted by its effects on other things — reality exceeds all access." }, { "title": "Ancestrality", "text": "Meillassoux: science tells us about events before any consciousness existed (the formation of stars, the age of rocks). This is a problem for correlationism but not for realism." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Graham Harman, Speculative Realism: An Introduction (Polity, 2018)" } ] }, { "id": "spinozism", "label": "Spinozism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/spinozism/", "description": "Spinoza's philosophy identifies God with Nature itself (Deus sive Natura) — there is only one substance, infinite and self-caused, of which all particular things are modes or modifications. Free will is an illusion; everything follows necessarily from God's nature. Yet this determinism is liberating: through rational understanding, we achieve the 'intellectual love of God' and blessedness.", "formationKind": "intellectual-current", "era": "early-modern", "timePeriod": "c. 1663-1800 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "metaphysics", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Baruch Spinoza", "Gotthold Ephraim Lessing", "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Deus sive Natura (God or Nature)", "Substance monism", "Conatus", "Intellectual love of God", "Determinism" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Substance Monism", "text": "There is only one substance — God or Nature — with infinite attributes, of which we know two: thought and extension. Everything that exists is a mode of this single substance." }, { "title": "Conatus", "text": "Every being strives to persist in its own being (conatus). This striving is the essence of each thing and the foundation of Spinoza's psychology and ethics." }, { "title": "Freedom Through Understanding", "text": "We are 'free' not by escaping determinism but by understanding our place in nature. The more we understand, the less we are enslaved by passive emotions." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Baruch Spinoza", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/" } ] }, { "id": "stoicism", "label": "Stoicism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/stoicism/", "description": "Stoicism teaches that virtue is the only true good, that the universe is governed by rational providence (Logos), and that wisdom consists in aligning one's will with nature. Founded by Zeno of Citium around 300 BCE, it became one of the most influential philosophies of the ancient world, guiding emperors and slaves alike toward equanimity in the face of fortune.", "formationKind": "school", "era": "classical", "timePeriod": "c. 300 BCE - 200 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "ethics", "logic", "metaphysics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Zeno of Citium", "Cleanthes", "Chrysippus", "Seneca", "Epictetus", "Marcus Aurelius" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Virtue as the sole good", "Living according to nature", "Logos", "Apatheia", "Cosmopolitanism" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Virtue as the Sole Good", "text": "External circumstances — wealth, health, pleasure — are 'preferred indifferents.' Only virtue (wisdom, courage, justice, temperance) constitutes genuine good." }, { "title": "Dichotomy of Control", "text": "Distinguish what is 'up to us' (our judgments, intentions) from what is not (events, others' actions). Freedom and tranquility come from focusing only on what we can control." }, { "title": "Logos and Providence", "text": "The universe is governed by a rational principle (Logos). Everything that happens is part of a rational, deterministic order — the wise person embraces this with willing acceptance of fate." }, { "title": "Cosmopolitanism", "text": "All humans share in the universal Logos and are fellow citizens of the cosmos. Stoic ethics extends naturally to universal human dignity and brotherhood." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stoicism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/stoicism/" } ] }, { "id": "structural-analysis", "label": "Structural Analysis", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/structural-analysis/", "description": "Structural analysis explains an element through the system of differences, relations, and rules that makes it intelligible.", "methodFamily": "critical-interpretive", "domains": [ "language" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Define the system", "text": "Specify the field of signs, practices, roles, or objects under study." }, { "title": "Map relations", "text": "Identify contrasts, positions, transformations, and rules within that field." }, { "title": "Test the structure", "text": "Compare cases to see whether the proposed relations explain their differences." }, { "title": "Explain the element relationally", "text": "Show what the item is by the position and function it has in the system." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "François Dosse, History of Structuralism (University of Minnesota Press, 1997)" } ] }, { "id": "structural-injustice", "label": "Structural Injustice", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/structural-injustice/", "description": "What makes a social structure unjust?", "domains": [ "political" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Iris Marion Young, Responsibility for Justice (2011), ch. 2 'Structure as the Subject of Justice', which holds that structural injustice exists when social processes place large groups under systematic threat of domination or of deprivation of the means to develop their capacities" }, { "citation": "Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (1990), ch. 1, on the limits of treating justice as the distribution of a fixed stock of goods" } ] }, { "id": "structuralism", "label": "Structuralism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/structuralism/", "description": "Structuralism analyzes cultural phenomena — language, myths, kinship, literature — as systems of signs governed by underlying structures. Inspired by Saussure's linguistics, Levi-Strauss applied structural analysis to anthropology, Barthes to semiotics and literature, and Althusser to Marxism. The individual subject is decentered; meaning arises not from intention but from the system of differences.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "twentieth-century-plus", "timePeriod": "c. 1950-1975 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "language" ], "keyFigures": [ "Ferdinand de Saussure (precursor, d. 1913)", "Claude Levi-Strauss", "Roland Barthes", "Louis Althusser" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Sign, signifier, signified", "Deep structures", "Binary oppositions", "Langue and parole", "Death of the author" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Sign System", "text": "Meaning is produced not by the relation between words and things but by differences within a system of signs. 'Cat' means what it does because it differs from 'bat,' 'cap,' etc." }, { "title": "Deep Structures", "text": "Beneath the surface variety of myths, kinship systems, and cultural practices lie universal, unconscious structures — binary oppositions that organize human thought." }, { "title": "Decentering the Subject", "text": "The individual is not the author of meaning. Structures — linguistic, social, unconscious — speak through us rather than being created by us." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "François Dosse, History of Structuralism (University of Minnesota Press, 1997)" } ] }, { "id": "substance-dualism", "label": "Substance Dualism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/substance-dualism/", "description": "Mind and body are fundamentally distinct substances, and the mind is not reducible to the physical body.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "mind" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Dualism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/" } ] }, { "id": "substantial-self", "label": "Substantial Self", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/substantial-self/", "description": "The self is a simple, persisting thinking substance.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "mind" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, Meditations II and VI" } ] }, { "id": "suffering-as-judgment", "label": "Suffering as False Judgment", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/suffering-as-judgment/", "description": "Suffering arises from our judgments about events rather than from the events themselves, and it ceases when assent is withheld from false judgments about what is good and bad.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "ethics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Epictetus, Enchiridion §§1, 5" } ] }, { "id": "suffering-origin", "label": "The Origin and Cessation of Suffering", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/suffering-origin/", "description": "What gives rise to suffering, and what makes its cessation possible?", "domains": [ "ethics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Buddha, sections 3.b and 3.f", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/buddha/" } ] }, { "id": "sufism", "label": "Sufism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/sufism/", "description": "Sufism is the mystical dimension of Islam, seeking direct experiential knowledge of God through love, devotion, and inner purification. From Rabia's pure love of God to Ibn Arabi's metaphysics of the unity of being (later named wahdat al-wujud), Sufism developed a rich tradition of poetry, philosophy, and spiritual practice centered on the transformation of the heart.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "high-medieval", "timePeriod": "c. 750 CE onward", "regions": [ "middle-east" ], "domains": [ "aesthetic", "mind", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Rumi", "Ibn Arabi", "Al-Hallaj", "Rabia al-Adawiyya", "Al-Ghazali" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Fana (annihilation of self)", "Wahdat al-wujud (unity of being)", "Divine love", "Dhikr (remembrance of God)", "Tariqa (spiritual path)" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Fana (Annihilation)", "text": "The dissolution of the ego-self in God. As Al-Hallaj declared, 'Ana al-Haqq' (I am the Truth/God) — not self-aggrandizement but the complete disappearance of self." }, { "title": "Wahdat al-Wujud", "text": "The doctrine drawn from Ibn Arabi — there is only one Being (God), and the world is the self-disclosure of the divine names and attributes. Multiplicity is the mirror of divine unity. Ibn Arabi never used the phrase himself; his later followers and critics coined it as the name for his teaching." }, { "title": "Divine Love", "text": "Rabia al-Adawiyya pioneered the Sufi theology of pure love: 'O God, if I worship You for fear of Hell, burn me in Hell. If I worship You in hope of Paradise, exclude me from Paradise.'" } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Ibn 'Arabî", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-arabi/" } ] }, { "id": "supernatural-meaning", "label": "Divine Purpose", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/supernatural-meaning/", "description": "A life is meaningful insofar as it fulfils a purpose assigned by God, so meaning is conferred from outside and cannot be manufactured within a finite life.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "ethics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Leo Tolstoy, A Confession (1882)" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Meaning of Life, §2", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/life-meaning/" } ] }, { "id": "syllogistic-analysis", "label": "Syllogistic Analysis", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/syllogistic-analysis/", "description": "Syllogistic analysis represents an inference through categorical premises and a conclusion so that its validity can be tested by figure and form.", "methodFamily": "formal", "domains": [ "religion" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Identify the terms", "text": "Distinguish the major, minor, and middle terms in the inference." }, { "title": "Standardize the propositions", "text": "Express the premises and conclusion in categorical form." }, { "title": "Determine figure and mood", "text": "Record the position of the middle term and the quantity and quality of each proposition." }, { "title": "Test validity", "text": "Decide whether the form makes the conclusion follow necessarily from the premises." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Aristotle, Prior Analytics I.1–7 (definition and figures of the syllogism)" } ] }, { "id": "taoism", "label": "Taoism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/taoism/", "description": "Taoism, also romanized as Daoism, names intertwined but internally diverse philosophical and religious traditions. Its early philosophical currents emerged during the Warring States period around textual communities that produced the composite Daodejing and Zhuangzi. The traditional story makes Laozi an older contemporary of Confucius and the author of the Daodejing, but his historicity is uncertain and the text took shape over generations. Han historians later grouped earlier currents under the Daoist label, while organized religious traditions such as the Celestial Masters arose centuries afterward.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "classical", "timePeriod": "c. 400 BCE onward", "regions": [ "east-asia" ], "domains": [ "aesthetic", "metaphysics", "nature" ], "keyFigures": [ "Laozi (traditional figure)", "Zhuangzi", "Wang Bi", "Zhang Daoling" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Dao (the Way)", "Wu wei (non-action)", "Naturalness (ziran)", "Changing perspectives", "Later religious cultivation" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Dao", "text": "The *Daodejing* uses the Way to discuss how the world unfolds and how guidance can resist capture by fixed names." }, { "title": "Wu Wei", "text": "Non-coercive or effortless action avoids forcing outcomes and allows conduct to respond to how situations develop." }, { "title": "Zhuangzi's Shifting Perspectives", "text": "The *Zhuangzi* uses humor, paradox, and changing viewpoints to unsettle rigid distinctions and claims to uniquely authoritative guidance." }, { "title": "Later Religious Traditions", "text": "Daoist communities developed ritual, revelation, bodily cultivation, and institutional lineages while continually reinterpreting the early texts." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Laozi, introduction and §§1–2", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/laozi/" }, { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Daoist Philosophy, §§1–2", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/daoismdaoist-philosophy/" } ] }, { "id": "textual-exegesis", "label": "Textual Exegesis", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/textual-exegesis/", "description": "Textual exegesis draws a defensible reading out of an authoritative text by attending to its language, its literary and historical setting, and the received commentary on it.", "methodFamily": "critical-interpretive", "domains": [ "religion" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Establish the text", "text": "Settle wording, translation, and the unit being expounded before interpreting it." }, { "title": "Read in context", "text": "Weigh the passage against its immediate setting, the wider work, and the tradition of commentary." }, { "title": "Resolve difficulty", "text": "Where a plain reading conflicts with other commitments, argue for a figurative, analogical, or restricted sense." }, { "title": "Defend the reading", "text": "Present the interpretation as a claim answerable to the text rather than as private insight." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Hermeneutics, §1", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hermeneutics/" } ] }, { "id": "the-absurd", "label": "The Absurd", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/the-absurd/", "description": "Life has no discoverable cosmic meaning; lucid revolt in the face of the absurd is the honest response.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "ethics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Albert Camus, The Myth of Sisyphus (1942)" } ] }, { "id": "theism", "label": "Theism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/theism/", "description": "A personal, perfect God exists as the ultimate cause and explanation of the universe.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "religion" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, Part I, Question 2, Article 3 (the Five Ways)" } ] }, { "id": "theravada", "label": "Theravada", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/theravada/", "description": "Theravada ('School of the Elders') is the oldest surviving Buddhist tradition, based on the Pali Canon. It emphasizes individual liberation through the practice of insight meditation (vipassana), strict monastic discipline, and the systematic analysis of mental and physical phenomena (Abhidhamma). The ideal is the arhat — one who has attained nirvana through personal effort.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "classical", "timePeriod": "c. 250 BCE onward", "regions": [ "south-asia" ], "domains": [ "mind", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Buddhaghosa", "Mahinda", "Anuruddha", "Dhammapala" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Pali Canon", "Abhidhamma", "Vipassana (insight meditation)", "Arhat ideal", "Momentariness" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Pali Canon", "text": "The Tipitaka ('Three Baskets') — the oldest complete Buddhist scripture, comprising the Buddha's discourses (Suttas), monastic rules (Vinaya), and systematic philosophy (Abhidhamma)." }, { "title": "Abhidhamma Analysis", "text": "A minute analysis of experience into ultimate constituents (dhammas) — momentary mental and physical events that arise and pass away in rapid succession." }, { "title": "Vipassana", "text": "Insight meditation: the systematic observation of body and mind to directly see impermanence, suffering, and non-self — leading to liberation." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Rupert Gethin, The Foundations of Buddhism (Oxford University Press, 1998)" } ] }, { "id": "thought-experiment", "label": "Thought Experiment", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/thought-experiment/", "description": "A thought experiment constructs an imagined case and reasons through it to isolate a principle, intuition, possibility, or conceptual consequence.", "methodFamily": "argumentative", "domains": [ "ethics", "metaphysics", "mind" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Construct the case", "text": "Specify an imagined situation with the features relevant to the question." }, { "title": "Vary one feature", "text": "Hold other conditions steady while changing the point under examination." }, { "title": "Run the scenario", "text": "Work out what would happen or what judgments the case elicits." }, { "title": "Draw and test the inference", "text": "State the proposed lesson, then check whether hidden assumptions or misleading details drove it." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Thought Experiments", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thought-experiment/" } ] }, { "id": "tibetan", "label": "Tibetan Buddhism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/tibetan/", "description": "Tibetan Buddhism synthesizes Mahayana philosophy with Vajrayana (tantric) practice, creating a rich tradition of meditation, ritual, and philosophical analysis. It preserves and extends the Indian Buddhist scholastic traditions (Madhyamaka and Yogacara) while adding distinctively Tibetan elements such as the tulku reincarnation system and elaborate visualization practices.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "high-medieval", "timePeriod": "c. 650 CE onward", "regions": [ "east-asia" ], "domains": [ "mind", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Padmasambhava", "Tsongkhapa", "Milarepa", "Longchenpa", "Atisha" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Vajrayana tantra", "Tulku system", "Bardo (intermediate states)", "Deity yoga", "Lamrim (stages of the path)" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Vajrayana", "text": "The 'Diamond Vehicle' — a set of advanced practices (deity yoga, mantra, visualization) that can accelerate the path to enlightenment within a single lifetime." }, { "title": "Lamrim", "text": "The 'stages of the path' systematize the entire Buddhist path from initial motivation to full enlightenment, making the vast teachings accessible and progressive." }, { "title": "Bardo", "text": "The intermediate states between death and rebirth — described in the Tibetan Book of the Dead as opportunities for liberation through recognition of the mind's true nature." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "John Powers, Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism (Snow Lion, 1995)" } ] }, { "id": "transcendental-argument", "label": "Transcendental Argument", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/transcendental-argument/", "description": "A transcendental argument reasons from an accepted experience, practice, or capacity to conditions claimed to be necessary for its possibility.", "methodFamily": "argumentative", "domains": [ "epistemology", "metaphysics", "mind" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Fix the starting point", "text": "Identify an experience or capacity the inquiry treats as actual." }, { "title": "Ask what it requires", "text": "Determine which structures or commitments would have to hold for that starting point to be possible." }, { "title": "Rule out alternatives", "text": "Show why the phenomenon could not occur without the proposed condition." }, { "title": "State the scoped conclusion", "text": "Claim necessity only relative to the established starting point." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Transcendental Arguments, introduction and §1", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/transcendental-arguments/" } ] }, { "id": "transcendental-idealism", "label": "Transcendental Idealism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/transcendental-idealism/", "description": "Space and time are forms of human sensibility through which objects appear, not features of things as they are in themselves.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "epistemology", "metaphysics", "mind" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Kant's Transcendental Idealism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/" } ] }, { "id": "transcendental-realism", "label": "Transcendental Realism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/transcendental-realism/", "description": "Space and time belong to things as they are independently of human sensibility.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "epistemology", "metaphysics", "mind" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Kant's Transcendental Idealism, section 1.1", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/#TranRealEmpiIdea" } ] }, { "id": "transcendentalism", "label": "Transcendentalism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/transcendentalism/", "description": "American Transcendentalism held that the individual soul has direct access to spiritual truth through intuition, nature, and self-reliance, without the mediation of institutions or inherited tradition. Emerson celebrated the divinity within each person; Thoreau put these ideas into practice through simple living at Walden Pond and principled civil disobedience.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "nineteenth-century", "timePeriod": "c. 1836-1882 CE", "regions": [ "north-america" ], "domains": [ "mind", "nature" ], "keyFigures": [ "Ralph Waldo Emerson", "Henry David Thoreau", "Margaret Fuller", "Amos Bronson Alcott" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Self-reliance", "Oversoul", "Civil disobedience", "Nature as spiritual teacher", "Intuition over empiricism" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Self-Reliance", "text": "Trust your own inner voice over social conformity. 'Whoso would be a man must be a nonconformist.' Imitation is suicide; each person must find and follow their own genius." }, { "title": "The Oversoul", "text": "All individual souls participate in one universal spirit — the Oversoul — connecting every person to every other and to nature itself." }, { "title": "Civil Disobedience", "text": "Thoreau argued that when the law is unjust, the moral individual has a duty to resist. His ideas later inspired Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Transcendentalism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/transcendentalism/" } ] }, { "id": "truth-nature", "label": "The Nature of Truth", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/truth-nature/", "description": "What makes a statement true — what is truth?", "domains": [ "epistemology" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Truth", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/" } ] }, { "id": "universals", "label": "The Problem of Universals", "type": "problem", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/problems/universals/", "description": "Do general kinds, properties, or forms exist beyond the particular things that instantiate them?", "domains": [ "metaphysics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Universals", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/universa/" } ] }, { "id": "upanishadic-contemplation", "label": "Upaniṣadic Contemplation", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/upanishadic-contemplation/", "description": "Upaniṣadic contemplation joins receptive study, reflective reasoning, and sustained contemplation in an inquiry into self and ultimate reality.", "methodFamily": "contemplative", "domains": [ "mind" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Hear the teaching", "text": "Receive an Upaniṣadic instruction through study or guidance." }, { "title": "Reflect on it", "text": "Use reasoning to clarify its meaning and answer conceptual doubt." }, { "title": "Contemplate it", "text": "Sustain attention to the teaching beyond discursive restatement." }, { "title": "Test assimilation", "text": "Examine whether the understanding changes how self and world are apprehended." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Patrick Olivelle, The Early Upaniṣads (Oxford University Press, 1998), Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 2.4" } ] }, { "id": "utilitarian-distribution", "label": "Utilitarian Distribution", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/utilitarian-distribution/", "description": "A distribution is just when it maximizes aggregate well-being across everyone affected.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "political" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Distributive Justice", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice-distributive/" } ] }, { "id": "utilitarianism", "label": "Classical Utilitarianism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/utilitarianism/", "description": "Utilitarianism holds that the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Bentham developed a quantitative 'hedonic calculus' for measuring pleasure and pain, while Mill refined the theory by distinguishing higher (intellectual) from lower (bodily) pleasures and defending individual liberty as essential to human flourishing.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "nineteenth-century", "timePeriod": "c. 1780-1900 CE", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "ethics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Jeremy Bentham", "John Stuart Mill", "Henry Sidgwick" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Greatest happiness principle", "Hedonic calculus", "Higher and lower pleasures", "Consequentialism", "Act vs. rule utilitarianism" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Greatest Happiness Principle", "text": "Actions are right insofar as they tend to promote happiness (pleasure and absence of pain), wrong insofar as they tend to produce the reverse — calculated impartially across all affected." }, { "title": "Higher and Lower Pleasures", "text": "Mill argued: 'It is better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.' Intellectual and moral pleasures are qualitatively superior to mere bodily satisfaction." }, { "title": "Consequentialism", "text": "The moral value of an action lies entirely in its consequences — not in the agent's intentions, the act's intrinsic nature, or adherence to rules." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The History of Utilitarianism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/utilitarianism-history/" } ] }, { "id": "vedanta", "label": "Vedanta", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/vedanta/", "description": "Vedanta ('end of the Vedas') is the most influential school of Indian philosophy, interpreting the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras, and Bhagavad Gita. Shankara's Advaita (non-dual) Vedanta teaches that Brahman alone is real, the world is maya (illusion), and the individual self (Atman) is identical with Brahman. Ramanuja and Madhva offered theistic alternatives. As a distinct darśana Vedānta is usually dated from the Brahma Sūtras, whose composition is placed anywhere between roughly 200 BCE and 400 CE; this entry takes 200 CE as a midpoint rather than a settled date.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "early-medieval", "timePeriod": "c. 200 CE onward", "regions": [ "south-asia" ], "domains": [ "metaphysics", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Shankara (Adi Shankaracharya)", "Ramanuja", "Madhva", "Badarayana" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Brahman as ultimate reality", "Maya (illusion)", "Advaita (non-dualism)", "Moksha through knowledge" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Advaita (Non-Dualism)", "text": "Shankara's radical teaching: the distinction between self and Brahman is caused by ignorance (avidya). In truth, there is only one reality — Brahman — and 'you are that.'" }, { "title": "Maya", "text": "The world of multiplicity is not ultimately real but a superimposition (adhyasa) of ignorance upon Brahman — like mistaking a rope for a snake." }, { "title": "Three Levels of Reality", "text": "Shankara distinguishes paramarthika (absolute reality — Brahman), vyavaharika (empirical reality — the everyday world), and pratibhasika (illusory — dreams, mirages)." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Śaṅkara", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/shankara/" }, { "citation": "Karl H. Potter (ed.), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, vol. 3: Advaita Vedānta up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils (Princeton University Press, 1981), introduction (dating of the Brahma Sūtras)" } ] }, { "id": "vedic", "label": "Vedic Philosophy", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/vedic/", "description": "Vedic philosophy encompasses the profound metaphysical and ethical reflections found in the Vedas and Upanishads, the foundational texts of Indian thought. Moving from the ritualistic hymns of the Rig Veda to the speculative inquiries of the Upanishads, this tradition asked the deepest questions about the nature of reality, consciousness, and liberation.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "ancient", "timePeriod": "c. 1500-500 BCE", "regions": [ "south-asia" ], "domains": [ "metaphysics", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Yajnavalkya", "Gargi Vachaknavi", "Uddalaka Aruni" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Brahman (ultimate reality)", "Atman (self)", "Karma", "Dharma", "Moksha (liberation)" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Brahman and Atman", "text": "The Upanishads teach that Brahman (the ultimate, infinite reality) and Atman (the individual self) are fundamentally identical — 'Tat tvam asi' (Thou art that)." }, { "title": "Karma and Samsara", "text": "Actions (karma) generate consequences that bind the soul to the cycle of death and rebirth (samsara). Liberation (moksha) comes through knowledge, devotion, or disciplined action." }, { "title": "Nasadiya Sukta", "text": "The famous 'Creation Hymn' of the Rig Veda (10.129) questions the very possibility of knowing the origin of existence — a remarkably skeptical and open-ended inquiry for its time." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Hindu Philosophy", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/hindu-ph/" } ] }, { "id": "verificationism", "label": "Verificationism", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/verificationism/", "description": "A sentence is cognitively meaningful if and only if it is analytic or empirically verifiable.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "language" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Theories of Meaning", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/meaning/" } ] }, { "id": "vipassana", "label": "Vipassanā", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/vipassana/", "description": "Vipassanā cultivates insight by closely examining changing physical and mental processes, especially as impermanent, unsatisfactory, and without an enduring self in Buddhist contexts.", "methodFamily": "contemplative", "domains": [ "ethics" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Establish attentive observation", "text": "Select bodily or mental processes as the field of examination." }, { "title": "Track change", "text": "Notice arising, alteration, and passing rather than treating experience as static." }, { "title": "Examine appropriation", "text": "Observe how processes are taken as “I” or “mine” and how craving follows." }, { "title": "Cultivate insight", "text": "Understand impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, and non-self through trained observation." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Religious Experience, §4.4.1", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religious-experience/" } ] }, { "id": "virtue-ethics", "label": "Virtue Ethics", "type": "position", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/virtue-ethics/", "description": "An action is right when it is what a practically wise, virtuous person would characteristically do in pursuit of human flourishing.", "positionLevel": "specific", "domains": [ "ethics" ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Virtue Ethics", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/" } ] }, { "id": "virtue-ethics-revival", "label": "Virtue Ethics Revival", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/virtue-ethics-revival/", "description": "The Virtue Ethics Revival, sparked by Anscombe's 1958 critique of modern moral philosophy, returned to Aristotelian and Stoic ideals of character, practical wisdom, and human flourishing. Rather than asking 'What should I do?' (as in deontology and consequentialism), virtue ethics asks 'What kind of person should I be?' — centering ethics on the cultivation of excellent character traits.", "formationKind": "movement", "era": "twentieth-century-plus", "timePeriod": "c. 1958 CE onward", "regions": [ "europe" ], "domains": [ "ethics" ], "keyFigures": [ "Elizabeth Anscombe", "Alasdair MacIntyre", "Philippa Foot", "Rosalind Hursthouse", "Martha Nussbaum" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Character and virtue", "Eudaimonia", "Practical wisdom (phronesis)", "Narrative identity", "The good life" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Character Over Rules", "text": "Ethics is fundamentally about developing virtuous character — courage, temperance, justice, generosity — not about following rules or maximizing outcomes." }, { "title": "Practical Wisdom (Phronesis)", "text": "The master virtue: the ability to perceive what the situation requires and respond appropriately. Virtue cannot be reduced to a formula; it requires judgment." }, { "title": "MacIntyre's Narrative", "text": "Human life is a narrative quest for the good. Virtues are qualities that sustain us in that quest, and they can only be understood within specific practices and traditions." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "G. E. M. Anscombe, 'Modern Moral Philosophy', Philosophy 33 (1958)" } ] }, { "id": "yoga-phil", "label": "Yoga Philosophy", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/yoga-phil/", "description": "Yoga Philosophy, systematized by Patanjali in the Yoga Sutras, defines yoga as 'the cessation of the fluctuations of the mind' (chitta vritti nirodha). Building on Samkhya metaphysics, it adds a practical path of eight limbs — from ethical precepts through meditation to the highest state of absorption (samadhi) — and introduces Ishvara (God) as a special, ever-free consciousness.", "formationKind": "school", "era": "late-antiquity", "timePeriod": "c. 150-500 CE", "regions": [ "south-asia" ], "domains": [ "mind", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Patanjali", "Vyasa" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Eight limbs of yoga", "Chitta vritti nirodha", "Samadhi", "Ishvara (God)", "Concentration and meditation" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Chitta Vritti Nirodha", "text": "Yoga is the stilling of mental fluctuations. When the mind ceases its restless activity, pure consciousness (purusha) is revealed in its own nature." }, { "title": "Eight Limbs (Ashtanga)", "text": "The path proceeds through: ethical restraints, observances, posture, breath control, sense withdrawal, concentration, meditation, and finally samadhi (absorption)." }, { "title": "Samadhi", "text": "The highest state of consciousness — complete absorption in which the distinction between knower, known, and knowing dissolves, revealing the true Self." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Edwin F. Bryant, The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali (North Point Press, 2009), Introduction" } ] }, { "id": "yogacara", "label": "Yogacara", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/yogacara/", "description": "Yogacara ('Practice of Yoga') is a diverse Mahayana Buddhist school concerned with the structure and transformation of consciousness on the path to liberation. Its mind-only or consciousness-only teaching gives cognition priority in explaining the experienced world, but scholars dispute whether it is best read as metaphysical idealism, epistemic idealism, or a phenomenological analysis that leaves ontological questions open. Yogacara also developed an eightfold model of consciousness that includes the alaya-vijnana (storehouse consciousness).", "formationKind": "school", "era": "late-antiquity", "timePeriod": "c. 350-700 CE", "regions": [ "south-asia", "east-asia" ], "domains": [ "logic", "metaphysics", "mind" ], "keyFigures": [ "Asanga", "Vasubandhu", "Dignaga", "Dharmakirti" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Consciousness-only (vijnapti-matra)", "Eight consciousnesses", "Alaya-vijnana (storehouse consciousness)", "Three natures" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Consciousness-Only", "text": "In the strands that defend this teaching, sensible objects are known as appearances within cognition and experiences arise through mental causes. Whether this denies a mind-independent reality or instead limits what can be claimed about it remains disputed." }, { "title": "Alaya-Vijnana", "text": "The storehouse consciousness underlies all experience, containing 'seeds' (bija) deposited by past actions that ripen into future perceptions and experiences." }, { "title": "Three Natures", "text": "This teaching distinguishes the imagined nature of false projections, the dependent nature of causally conditioned experience, and the perfected nature disclosed when the imagined is absent from the dependent." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Yogācāra", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/yogacara/" } ] }, { "id": "yogic-concentration", "label": "Yogic Concentration", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/yogic-concentration/", "description": "Yogic concentration progressively stills mental activity by binding attention to a single object, sustaining that attention, and letting it deepen into absorption.", "methodFamily": "contemplative", "domains": [ "mind" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Restrain mental turning", "text": "Work to quiet the fluctuations of ordinary mental activity." }, { "title": "Fix attention", "text": "Bind awareness to one chosen object, holding it in place." }, { "title": "Sustain unbroken flow", "text": "Let fixed attention lengthen into continuous, uninterrupted attending." }, { "title": "Enter absorption", "text": "Allow the distinction between attending and object to fall away, yielding discriminative insight." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Yoga Sutras of Patanjali", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/yoga/" } ] }, { "id": "zazen", "label": "Zazen", "type": "method", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/zazen/", "description": "Zazen is seated Zen practice that coordinates posture, breathing, and attention to transform habitual, self-centered ways of experiencing.", "methodFamily": "contemplative", "domains": [ "mind" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Adjust the body", "text": "Take a stable seated posture suited to sustained practice." }, { "title": "Adjust the breathing", "text": "Let breathing become settled and attend to it as the lineage instructs." }, { "title": "Adjust the mind", "text": "Work with distraction through breath, kōan, or just-sitting practice." }, { "title": "Return through practice", "text": "Carry the less dualistic mode of attention into ordinary activity." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Japanese Zen Buddhist Philosophy, §§2–3", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/japanese-zen/" } ] }, { "id": "zen", "label": "Zen (Chan)", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/zen/", "description": "Zen (Chan in Chinese) emphasizes direct, experiential awakening over doctrinal study. Combining Mahayana Buddhism with Taoist sensibilities, it teaches that enlightenment is not a distant goal but our original nature, obscured by conceptual thinking. Through meditation (zazen), koans (paradoxical riddles), and the guidance of a teacher, the practitioner realizes this directly.", "formationKind": "school", "era": "early-medieval", "timePeriod": "c. 520 CE onward", "regions": [ "east-asia" ], "domains": [ "mind", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Bodhidharma", "Huineng", "Dogen", "Linji (Rinzai)", "Hakuin" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Zazen (sitting meditation)", "Koan practice", "Satori (sudden awakening)", "Mushin (no-mind)", "Direct pointing" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Direct Pointing", "text": "'A special transmission outside the scriptures; not depending on words and letters; pointing directly at the mind; seeing into one's nature and attaining Buddhahood.'" }, { "title": "Koan Practice", "text": "Paradoxical questions like 'What is the sound of one hand clapping?' are designed to exhaust conceptual thinking and trigger a breakthrough (satori) beyond logic." }, { "title": "Everyday Mind", "text": "Enlightenment is not otherworldly but found in ordinary activities — chopping wood, carrying water. The sacred is not separate from the mundane." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Heinrich Dumoulin, Zen Buddhism: A History, vol. 1: India and China (Macmillan, 1988)" } ] }, { "id": "zoroastrianism", "label": "Zoroastrianism", "type": "school-of-thought", "url": "https://map.ebarakos.com/entities/zoroastrianism/", "description": "Zoroastrianism is a continuing Iranian religious tradition rooted in the Gathas, hymns traditionally attributed to Zarathustra (Zoroaster). His date remains disputed: estimates range from about 1200 to 600 BCE, so this entry uses about 1000 BCE as a midpoint rather than an exact foundation date. The Gathas center Ahura Mazda, the opposition between Asha (truth and right order) and Druj (falsehood), and the moral weight of human choice. They do not, however, contain every doctrine found in later Zoroastrian sources.", "formationKind": "tradition", "era": "ancient", "timePeriod": "c. 1000 BCE onward", "regions": [ "middle-east" ], "domains": [ "ethics", "religion" ], "keyFigures": [ "Zoroaster (Zarathustra)" ], "keyConcepts": [ "Asha and Druj (truth and falsehood)", "Moral choice", "Later cosmic dualism", "Judgment of the soul", "Final renovation (Frashokereti)" ], "keyIdeas": [ { "title": "Asha and Druj", "text": "The early hymns contrast truth and right order with falsehood and call people to align their thought, speech, and action with Asha." }, { "title": "Moral Choice", "text": "Human choices carry consequences for the person and participate in the wider struggle between good and evil." }, { "title": "Developed Cosmic Dualism", "text": "Later sources give a fuller cosmology of conflict between Ohrmazd and Ahriman than the early hymns alone provide." }, { "title": "Judgment and Final Renovation", "text": "Zoroastrian eschatology developed accounts of judgment after death, resurrection, and a final restored world in which evil no longer causes harm." } ], "sources": [ { "citation": "Encyclopaedia Iranica, Chronology of Iranian History, part 1 (Zarathustra's date is disputed, with estimates from c. 1200 to c. 600 BCE)", "url": "https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/chronology-of-iranian-history-part-1/" }, { "citation": "Prods Oktor Skjærvø, “Zoroastrianism I. Historical Review up to the Arab Conquest,” Encyclopaedia Iranica", "url": "https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/zoroastrianism-i-historical-review/" }, { "citation": "Shaul Shaked, “Eschatology I. In Zoroastrianism and Zoroastrian Influence,” Encyclopaedia Iranica", "url": "https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eschatology-i/" } ] } ], "relations": [ { "type": "applied_to", "target": "external-world", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Abduction, §§1.1 and 3.1", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "abductive-reasoning" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Idealism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/idealism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "absolute-idealism" }, { "type": "specializes", "target": "idealism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Idealism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/idealism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "absolute-idealism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "absolute-idealist-current" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "absolute-idealism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Idealism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/idealism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "absolute-idealist-current" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "german-idealism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "W. J. Mander, British Idealism: A History (Oxford University Press, 2011), ch. 1" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Idealism, §5 (British and American absolute idealism as a development of Hegel)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/idealism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "constitutive", "contextNote": "Stirling's The Secret of Hegel (1865) opened a sustained British and American reception of Hegel, from which Green, Bradley, Bosanquet and Royce built their own systems of the Absolute.", "source": "absolute-idealist-current" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "aesthetic", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "absurdism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "ethics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "absurdism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "the-absurd", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Albert Camus", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/camus/" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "meaning", "source": "absurdism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "nihilist-current", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Albert Camus", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/camus/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "absurdism" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "existentialism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Albert Camus", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/camus/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "contextNote": "Camus rejected the existentialist label and refused Sartre's leap toward self-created meaning as a new foundation, insisting the absurd be kept alive rather than resolved.", "source": "absurdism" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "knowledge-possibility", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Carneades, §§3–4", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/carneades/" } ], "uncertain": false, "contextNote": "Against the Stoic claim that action requires cognitive impressions, this position allows inquiry and action to follow critically examined persuasive impressions without treating them as certain knowledge.", "source": "academic-fallibilism" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "pyrrhonian-suspension", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism I.226-231, which separates Pyrrhonism from the Academics on the ground that the Academics assent to the persuasive while the Pyrrhonist suspends assent altogether" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "knowledge-possibility", "source": "academic-fallibilism" }, { "type": "specializes", "target": "skepticism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Ancient Skepticism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism-ancient/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "academic-fallibilism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "academic-skept" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "academic-fallibilism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Carneades, §§3–4", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/carneades/" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "knowledge-possibility", "contextNote": "Carneades developed the persuasive-impression criterion in reply to Stoic objections that skepticism made action impossible. Whether he endorsed it as his own doctrine or advanced it dialectically remains disputed.", "source": "academic-skept" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "platonism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Cicero, Academica I.43–46 (Arcesilaus and the Academy's skeptical turn)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "academic-skept" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "stoicism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Cicero, Academica II (the Academic–Stoic debate over the criterion)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "academic-skept" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "beauty-art", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Clive Bell, Art (1914), Part I ch. 1 'The Aesthetic Hypothesis', which names significant form as the one quality common to all works of visual art" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "aesthetic-formalism" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "expression-theory-of-art", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Clive Bell, Art (1914), Part I ch. 1, which holds that what makes a work art is significant form and expressly not the emotion or the life it conveys" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "beauty-art", "source": "aesthetic-formalism" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "institutional-theory-of-art", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Definition of Art, §§1-2 (the institutional definition denies that any exhibited property, form included, confers art status)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/art-definition/" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "beauty-art", "source": "aesthetic-formalism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "language", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "analytic" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "logic", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "analytic" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "empiricism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Logical Empiricism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-empiricism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "analytic" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "neo-kantianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Michael Friedman, A Parting of the Ways: Carnap, Cassirer, and Heidegger (Open Court, 2000)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "analytic" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "pragmatism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Pragmatism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pragmatism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "source": "analytic" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "absolute-idealist-current", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "G. E. Moore, 'The Refutation of Idealism', Mind 12 (1903)" }, { "citation": "Peter Hylton, Russell, Idealism and the Emergence of Analytic Philosophy (Oxford University Press, 1990), ch. 1" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "contextNote": "Russell's and Moore's rejection of British Idealism was a founding catalyst for the analytic movement.", "source": "analytic" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "conceptual-analysis", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Analysis, §4 and supplement 'Conceptions of Analysis in Analytic Philosophy'", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analysis/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "analytic" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "political", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "anarchism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "social-contract", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Anarchism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/anarchism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "source": "anarchism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "utilitarianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Anarchism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/anarchism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "source": "anarchism" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "marxism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Anarchism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/anarchism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "contextNote": "The Bakunin–Marx split at the First International crystallized a lasting opposition between libertarian and authoritarian socialism, anarchism rejecting the transitional state Marx accepted.", "source": "anarchism" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "moral-standing-in-nature", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Environmental Ethics, §1", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-environmental/#Intr" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "anthropocentric-moral-standing" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "ethics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "aristotelianism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "logic", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "aristotelianism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "aristotelianism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "virtue-ethics", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Books I-II" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "normative-ethics", "source": "aristotelianism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "platonism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Analysis, §2.4, “Aristotle” (Plato as the major influence on Aristotle)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analysis/s2.html" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "constitutive", "contextNote": "Aristotle trained in Plato's Academy for about twenty years, and Platonic questions and methods remained a major point of departure even where his own school rejected Plato's answers.", "source": "aristotelianism" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "platonism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Aristotle, Metaphysics I.9, 990b–991b and XIII.4–5 (the arguments against separate Forms)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "contextNote": "Aristotle's rejection of separately existing Forms — locating form in the particular substance rather than a transcendent realm — is his defining departure from his teacher.", "source": "aristotelianism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "deductive-reasoning", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Aristotle, Posterior Analytics I.2 (demonstrative knowledge as deduction from premises prior to and better known than the conclusion)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "aristotelianism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "syllogistic-analysis", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Aristotle, Prior Analytics I.1–7 (definition and first figures of syllogistic deduction)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "aristotelianism" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "existence-of-god", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Atheism and Agnosticism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "contextNote": "Holds that the arguments for a first cause or designer fail, or that natural explanations of the universe's order and origin are sufficient without positing God.", "source": "atheism" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "theism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Atheism and Agnosticism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/" }, { "citation": "Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, Part I, Question 2, Article 3 (the Five Ways)" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "existence-of-god", "source": "atheism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "atomism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "nature", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "atomism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "eleatic", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Aristotle, On Generation and Corruption I.8, 324b35–325a32 (atomism as a response to Eleatic monism)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "atomism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "pluralists", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "C. C. W. Taylor, The Atomists: Leucippus and Democritus (University of Toronto Press, 1999)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "contextNote": "Extended the pluralist response to Parmenides — Empedocles' roots and Anaxagoras' seeds — replacing qualitatively distinct principles with uniform atoms moving in the void.", "source": "atomism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "averroism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "averroism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "aristotelianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Ibn Rushd [Averroes]", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-rushd/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "constitutive", "contextNote": "Averroes was 'The Commentator' on Aristotle; the movement is defined by Aristotelian naturalism, the eternity of the world, and the unity of the intellect.", "source": "averroism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "islamic-phil", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Ibn Rushd [Averroes]", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-rushd/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "constitutive", "source": "averroism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "aesthetic", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "beauty-art" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "bergsonian-intuitionism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "mind", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "bergsonian-intuitionism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "kantianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Henri Bergson", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bergson/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "bergsonian-intuitionism" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "moral-standing-in-nature", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kenneth E. Goodpaster, 'On Being Morally Considerable', Journal of Philosophy 75 (1978), pp. 308–325" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "biocentric-moral-standing" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "ethics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "buddhism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "mind", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "buddhism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "religion", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "buddhism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "dependent-origination", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Samyutta Nikaya 12.1–2 (paṭicca-samuppāda)" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "suffering-origin", "source": "buddhism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "no-self", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Samyutta Nikaya 22.59 (Anattalakkhaṇa Sutta)" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "self-existence", "source": "buddhism" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "jainism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Majjhima Nikaya 56 (Upāli Sutta — the Buddha's engagement with Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "source": "buddhism" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "vedic", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Buddha", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/buddha/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "contextNote": "Rejected the authority and efficacy of Vedic sacrificial ritual and the Brahminical order, replacing them with a path of insight open to all.", "source": "buddhism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "buddhist-mindfulness-meditation", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Majjhima Nikaya 10, Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta (systematic contemplation of body, feelings, mind, and phenomena)", "url": "https://suttacentral.net/mn10/en/sujato" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "buddhism" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "suffering-origin", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Majjhima Nikaya 10, Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta", "url": "https://suttacentral.net/mn10/en/sujato" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "buddhist-mindfulness-meditation" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "self-existence", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, I.4.6" } ], "uncertain": false, "contextNote": "On whether a self exists: introspection turns up no impression of a simple, continued self, only a bundle of ever-changing perceptions, so there is no such entity to be found.", "source": "bundle-theory" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "self-identity", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, I.4.6" } ], "uncertain": false, "contextNote": "On whether the self persists: identity over time is a fiction the mind builds from the resemblance and causal succession of perceptions; nothing simple endures to be re-identified.", "source": "bundle-theory" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "substantial-self", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, I.4.6 (no impression of a simple, continued self) against René Descartes, Meditations II and VI (the self as a simple, persisting thinking substance)" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Personal Identity", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/identity-personal/" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "self-existence", "source": "bundle-theory" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "structural-injustice", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Martha C. Nussbaum, Women and Human Development: The Capabilities Approach (2000), ch. 1, arguing that social and political institutions should promote at least a threshold level of the central human capabilities as a decent social minimum" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "capabilities-deprivation" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "language-meaning", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Saul Kripke, Naming and Necessity (1980), Lecture II, which replaces description-based accounts with an initial baptism and a causal chain of reference-preserving transmission" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "causal-historical-reference" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "causality", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Rom Harré and E. H. Madden, Causal Powers: A Theory of Natural Necessity (1975), which grounds causation in the powers and natures of particulars rather than in regularity" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "causal-powers" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "counterfactual-causation", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stephen Mumford and Rani Lill Anjum, Getting Causes from Powers (Oxford University Press, 2011), ch. 1, which rejects the counterfactual analysis along with the regularity analysis on the ground that causation is the exercise of a power rather than a pattern of dependence among events" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "causality", "source": "causal-powers" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "humean-regularity", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Rom Harre and E. H. Madden, Causal Powers: A Theory of Natural Necessity (1975), ch. 1, which argues that the regularity account leaves out the natural necessity that powers supply, so the two accounts of what causation consists in cannot both hold" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "causality", "source": "causal-powers" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "causality" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "change-being" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Kant's Transcendental Idealism, §§1–3", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "cognition-structure" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Kant's Critique of Metaphysics, introduction and §1", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-metaphysics/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "cognition-structure" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "mind", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, A22/B36–A49/B73 (space and time as forms of human sensibility)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "cognition-structure" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "language", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Controlled domain vocabulary (docs/taxonomy.md)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "cognitive-meaningfulness" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "truth-nature", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Brand Blanshard, The Nature of Thought (1939), vol. II, ch. 26" } ], "uncertain": false, "contextNote": "On what truth is: truth is not correspondence to an external fact but membership in a maximally comprehensive, consistent system of beliefs — if coherence is the only test we can apply, truth itself must consist in coherence.", "source": "coherence-theory" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "correspondence-theory", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Coherence Theory of Truth (Blanshard's argument: if coherence is the test of truth, truth cannot consist in correspondence)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-coherence/" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "truth-nature", "source": "coherence-theory" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "free-will", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Compatibilism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/compatibilism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "compatibilism" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "hard-determinism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Compatibilism, §1 (compatibilism and hard determinism agree that determinism holds and disagree over whether a determined agent acts freely)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/compatibilism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "free-will", "source": "compatibilism" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "libertarian-freedom", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Incompatibilist Theories of Free Will, §1 (libertarianism asserts the incompatibility thesis that compatibilism denies)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/incompatibilism-theories/" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "free-will", "source": "compatibilism" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "beauty-art", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Definition of Art", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/art-definition/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "conceptual-analysis" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "cognitive-meaningfulness", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Rudolf Carnap, 'Testability and Meaning', Philosophy of Science 3 (1936) §§1–3 and 4 (1937), which replaces the requirement of complete verification with degrees of confirmation and testability" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "confirmability-criterion" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "verificationism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Rudolf Carnap, 'Testability and Meaning', Philosophy of Science 3 (1936) §1, which argues that complete verifiability is too strong a criterion of significance and puts confirmability in its place, so the two criteria admit different sentences" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "cognitive-meaningfulness", "source": "confirmability-criterion" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "ethics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "confucianism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "political", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "confucianism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "virtue-ethics", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Bryan W. Van Norden, Virtue Ethics and Consequentialism in Early Chinese Philosophy (Cambridge University Press, 2007)" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "normative-ethics", "source": "confucianism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "confucian-ritual-self-cultivation", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Confucius, §3", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/confucius/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "confucianism" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "normative-ethics", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Consequentialism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "consequentialism" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "kantian-deontology", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Deontological Ethics, §1 (deontology is defined by denying the consequentialist claim that the right is determined by the good produced)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-deontological/" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "normative-ethics", "source": "consequentialism" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "virtue-ethics", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Virtue Ethics, §1 (virtue ethics makes character prior to both the good outcome and the rule, so it cannot hold together with a consequentialist account of what makes an act right)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "normative-ethics", "source": "consequentialism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "political", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "contractarianism" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "truth-nature", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Aristotle, Metaphysics 1011b25" } ], "uncertain": false, "contextNote": "On what truth is: truth is a relation of correspondence between a truth-bearer and a mind-independent fact — a statement is true exactly when the world is arranged as it says.", "source": "correspondence-theory" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "deflationary-truth", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Deflationism About Truth (deflationism denies that truth is the substantive correspondence property the theory posits)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-deflationary/" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "truth-nature", "source": "correspondence-theory" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "pragmatist-truth", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "William James, Pragmatism (1907), Lecture VI, which rejects truth as a static copying relation to a mind-independent reality in favour of truth as what works in the course of experience" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "truth-nature", "source": "correspondence-theory" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "causality", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "David Lewis, 'Causation', Journal of Philosophy 70 (1973), which analyses causation as a chain of counterfactual dependence between distinct events" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "counterfactual-causation" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Karl Popper", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/popper/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "critical-rationalism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "science", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Karl Popper", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/popper/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "critical-rationalism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "falsificationism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Karl Popper", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/popper/" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "science-demarcation", "source": "critical-rationalism" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "logical-pos", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Karl Popper", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/popper/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "contextNote": "Where the positivists demarcated science by verifiability, Popper argued verification is impossible and that falsifiability is the mark of science, rejecting inductivism as a myth of method.", "source": "critical-rationalism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "falsification-testing", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Karl Popper, §3", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/popper/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "critical-rationalism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "ethics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "critical-theory" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "political", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "critical-theory" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "german-idealism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Critical Theory", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "critical-theory" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "marxism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Max Horkheimer, 'Traditional and Critical Theory' (1937)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "constitutive", "source": "critical-theory" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "phenomenology", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Herbert 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false, "source": "critical-theory" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "ideology-critique", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Critical Theory, §3.3", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "critical-theory" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "immanent-critique", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Critical Theory, §2", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "critical-theory" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "ethics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "cynicism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "language", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "deconstruction" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "phenomenology", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Jacques Derrida", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/derrida/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "deconstruction" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "structuralism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Jacques Derrida", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/derrida/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "contextNote": "Derrida's 1966 lecture 'Structure, Sign, and Play' attacked the structuralist assumption of a stable center, turning structuralism's own tools against it.", "source": "deconstruction" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "deconstructive-reading", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Jacques Derrida, §2", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/derrida/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "deconstruction" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "language-meaning", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Postmodernism, §3", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/postmodernism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "deconstructive-reading" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "existence-of-god", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae I, q.2, a.3 (the five demonstrations)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "deductive-reasoning" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "truth-nature", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "F. 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Hegel, Phenomenology of Spirit (1807), Introduction (consciousness supplies its own standard, so the examination it undergoes is one it carries out upon itself)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "german-idealism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "transcendental-argument", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Johann Gottlieb Fichte", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/johann-fichte/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "german-idealism" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "free-will", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Free Will", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/freewill/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "hard-determinism" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "libertarian-freedom", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Free Will", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/freewill/" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Incompatibilist Theories of Free Will", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/incompatibilism-theories/" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "free-will", "source": "hard-determinism" }, { "type": "specializes", "target": "determinism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Causal Determinism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/determinism-causal/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "hard-determinism" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "change-being", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Heraclitus, DK B12 and B30 (in Kirk, Raven and Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers, 2nd ed., 1983)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "heraclitean-flux" }, { "type": "specializes", "target": "process", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Process Philosophy", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/process-philosophy/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "heraclitean-flux" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "heraclitean" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "nature", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "heraclitean" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "heraclitean-flux", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Heraclitus, DK B12 and B30 (in Kirk, Raven and Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers, 2nd ed., 1983)" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "change-being", "source": "heraclitean" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "milesians", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "G. S. Kirk, J. E. Raven and M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers (2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1983)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "heraclitean" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "language-meaning", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Hermeneutics, §§1 and 3", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hermeneutics/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "hermeneutic-method" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "hermeneutics" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "language", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "hermeneutics" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "phenomenology", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Hermeneutics", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hermeneutics/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "hermeneutics" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "romanticism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Hermeneutics", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hermeneutics/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "hermeneutics" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "positivism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Hermeneutics", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hermeneutics/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "source": "hermeneutics" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "hermeneutic-method", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Hermeneutics", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hermeneutics/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "hermeneutics" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "hermeticism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "religion", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "hermeticism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "neoplatonism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Frances A. Yates, Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition (University of Chicago Press, 1964)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "hermeticism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "platonism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Frances A. Yates, Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition (University of Chicago Press, 1964)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "contextNote": "The Hermetic texts absorb Platonic cosmology — the demiurge and the intelligible world — directly, beyond what Neoplatonism alone transmits.", "source": "hermeticism" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "structural-injustice", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The German Ideology, Part I.A" }, { "citation": "Karl Marx, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, Preface (1859)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "historical-materialist-critique" }, { "type": "developed_from", "target": "dialectical-method", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Karl Marx, Capital, vol. 1, Afterword to the Second German Edition (1873)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "historical-materialist-critique" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "aesthetic", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "humanism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "ethics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "humanism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "platonism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Marsilio Ficino", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ficino/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "source": "humanism" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "scholasticism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Petrarch, On His Own Ignorance and That of Many Others (1367); Lorenzo Valla, Dialecticae disputationes (c. 1439)" }, { "citation": "Paul Oskar Kristeller, Renaissance Thought: The Classic, Scholastic, and Humanist Strains (Harper, 1961), ch. 4 (humanism and scholasticism as distinct, coexisting strains)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "contextNote": "The humanists defined their programme of eloquence and classical learning against scholastic dialectic and its Latin, from Petrarch's attack on the schoolmen to Valla's assault on scholastic logic. Kristeller's point stands: the two were parallel strains with different subjects, so this is documented polemic rather than descent.", "source": "humanism" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "causality", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, I.3.14" }, { "citation": "David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, §VII" } ], "uncertain": false, "contextNote": "A cause precedes and is contiguous with its effect, and events of the same kind are regularly followed by effects of the same kind; no further productive power is required.", "source": "humean-regularity" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "idealism" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "structural-injustice", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Ideology, §3", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ideology/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "ideology-critique" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "structural-injustice", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Critical Theory, §2", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "immanent-critique" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "knowledge", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, §IV" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Problem of Induction, §1", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/induction-problem/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "inductive-reasoning" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "beauty-art", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "George Dickie, Art and the Aesthetic: An Institutional Analysis (1974), ch. 1, defining a work of art as an artefact on which the artworld has conferred the status of candidate for appreciation" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "institutional-theory-of-art" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "mind-body", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy (1641), Meditations II and VI (the mind examined through attention to its own thinking, and that examination used to argue the distinction between mind and body)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "introspection" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "logic", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "islamic-phil" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "islamic-phil" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "religion", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "islamic-phil" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "aristotelianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Greek Sources in Arabic and Islamic Philosophy", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-greek/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "islamic-phil" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "neoplatonism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Greek Sources in Arabic and Islamic Philosophy", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-greek/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "islamic-phil" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "syllogistic-analysis", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Arabic and Islamic Philosophy of Language and Logic", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-language/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "islamic-phil" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "textual-exegesis", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Ibn Rushd [Averroes] (the short, middle and long commentaries on Aristotle as his principal philosophical form)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-rushd/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "islamic-phil" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "ethics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "jainism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "religion", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "jainism" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "vedic", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Padmanabh S. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification (University of California Press, 1979)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "contextNote": "A heterodox (nāstika) tradition that explicitly rejects Vedic authority while absorbing the shared Indian conceptual milieu of karma, mokṣa, and saṃsāra.", "source": "jainism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "jewish-phil" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "religion", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "jewish-phil" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "aristotelianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Maimonides", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/maimonides/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "contextNote": "Maimonides used Aristotelian logic and metaphysics to reinterpret Scripture, reconciling revelation with demonstrative reason in the Guide of the Perplexed.", "source": "jewish-phil" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "islamic-phil", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Maimonides", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/maimonides/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "jewish-phil" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "textual-exegesis", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Moses Maimonides, The Guide of the Perplexed, I.1–49" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "jewish-phil" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "kabbalah" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "religion", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "kabbalah" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "jewish-phil", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Gershom Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (Schocken, 1941)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "kabbalah" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "neoplatonism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Gershom Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (Schocken, 1941)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "kabbalah" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "sufism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Gershom Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (Schocken, 1941)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "contextNote": "Sufi mystical practice and theosophical vocabulary reached Jewish mystical writing through contact with the Islamicate world. The route is debated, which is why the influence is recorded as background rather than formative.", "source": "kabbalah" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "normative-ethics", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Deontological Ethics", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-deontological/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "kantian-deontology" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "virtue-ethics", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "G. E. M. Anscombe, 'Modern Moral Philosophy', Philosophy 33 (1958), which rejects duty-based accounts of right action in favour of an account grounded in the virtues" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Virtue Ethics, §1 (deontology and virtue ethics differ over whether the rule or the virtuous agent is the primary bearer of rightness)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "normative-ethics", "source": "kantian-deontology" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "aesthetic", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "kantianism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "kantianism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "ethics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "kantianism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "kantianism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "kantian-deontology", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, section II" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "normative-ethics", "source": "kantianism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "transcendental-idealism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, Transcendental Aesthetic and Transcendental Analytic" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "cognition-structure", "source": "kantianism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "empiricism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Leibniz's Influence on Kant", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-leibniz/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "contextNote": "Hume's empiricism 'awakened Kant from his dogmatic slumber', prompting the critical synthesis that reconciles empiricist and rationalist insights.", "source": "kantianism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "rationalism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Leibniz's Influence on Kant", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-leibniz/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "kantianism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "transcendental-argument", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Transcendental Arguments, §1 'History and Exemplars'", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/transcendental-arguments/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "kantianism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Skepticism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "knowledge-possibility" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "knowledge" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "science-demarcation", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Thomas S. Kuhn, 'Logic of Discovery or Psychology of Research?' (1970), in Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge, where Kuhn argues against Popper that puzzle-solving under a paradigm, not falsifiability, marks a field as scientific" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "kuhnian-puzzle-solving" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "kyoto-school" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "mind", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "kyoto-school" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "existentialism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Kyoto School", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kyoto-school/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "kyoto-school" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "phenomenology", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Kyoto School", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kyoto-school/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "kyoto-school" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "zen", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Kyoto School", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kyoto-school/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "constitutive", "source": "kyoto-school" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "language", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "language-meaning" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "political", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "legalism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "taoism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "A. C. Graham, Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China (Open Court, 1989)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "contextNote": "Adapted the Daoist notions of naturalness and of positional power (shi) into a theory of impersonal statecraft.", "source": "legalism" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "confucianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "A. C. 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"provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "logical-pos" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "language", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "logical-pos" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "science", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "logical-pos" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "verificationism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Vienna Circle", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/vienna-circle/" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "cognitive-meaningfulness", "source": "logical-pos" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "analytic", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Vienna Circle", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/vienna-circle/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "contextNote": "Frege's logic, Russell's logicism, and Wittgenstein's Tractatus were foundational for the Vienna Circle's programme of logical analysis.", "source": "logical-pos" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "empiricism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Vienna Circle", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/vienna-circle/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "logical-pos" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "positivism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Vienna Circle", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/vienna-circle/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "constitutive", "source": "logical-pos" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "formalization", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Vienna Circle, §§2.1 and 3.1", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/vienna-circle/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "logical-pos" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "political", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "machiavellianism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "humanism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Niccolò Machiavelli", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/machiavelli/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "machiavellianism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "madhyamaka" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "madhyamaka" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "mahayana", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Paul Williams, Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations (2nd ed., Routledge, 2009)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "madhyamaka" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "prasanga", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Madhyamaka, §§4.2–4.3", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/madhyamaka/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "madhyamaka" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "ethics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "mahayana" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "religion", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "mahayana" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "buddhism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Paul Williams, Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations (2nd ed., Routledge, 2009)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "constitutive", "source": "mahayana" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "ethics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "marxism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "political", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "marxism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "exploitation-account", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "G. A. Cohen, 'The Labour Theory of Value and the Concept of Exploitation', Philosophy & Public Affairs 8:4 (1979), arguing that the capitalist's appropriation of some of the value of what the worker produces grounds the moral charge of exploitation made by Marxists, independently of the labour theory of value" }, { "citation": "Allen W. Wood, 'The Marxian Critique of Justice', Philosophy & Public Affairs 1:3 (1972), pp. 244–282, arguing that Marx and Engels do not explicitly claim that capitalism is unjust" }, { "citation": "Karl Marx, Capital vol. I (1867), Part III chs. 7–9, on surplus value as unpaid labour appropriated through an exchange that is formally free" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "structural-injustice", "contextNote": "The subject is the tradition rather than Marx alone: his own texts analyse surplus extraction without explicitly calling capitalism unjust, while later Marxists state the wrong itself as unjust appropriation.", "source": "marxism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "german-idealism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hegel/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "constitutive", "contextNote": "Took over Hegel's dialectic but inverted it — from the self-movement of spirit to the development of material and economic conditions.", "source": "marxism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "historical-materialist-critique", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Karl Marx, §5 'Theory of History'", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "marxism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "ideology-critique", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The German Ideology, Part I.A, 'Ruling Class and Ruling Ideas'" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "marxism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "materialism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "ethics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "meaning" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "medieval-realism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "scholastic-realism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Medieval Problem of Universals", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/universals-medieval/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "medieval-realism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "platonism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Medieval Problem of Universals", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/universals-medieval/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "medieval-realism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "political", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "mesopotamian" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "religion", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "mesopotamian" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "external-world", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, Meditations I–II (AT VII 17–34)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "methodic-doubt" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "milesians" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "nature", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "milesians" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "mind", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "mind-body" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "logical-consequence", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Logical Consequence, §3.1", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-consequence/#ModeAccoLogiCons" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "model-theoretic-consequence" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "universals", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Thomas Aquinas, On Being and Essence" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "moderate-realism" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "nominalism-about-universals", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Medieval Problem of Universals, §1 (moderate realism holds that the universal nature is really in the particular; 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C. Graham, Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China (Open Court, 1989)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "contextNote": "Mozi trained in the Confucian tradition but rejected its partiality, elaborate ritual, and fatalism in favor of impartial care and consequentialist reasoning.", "source": "mohism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "monism" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "external-world", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "G. E. 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"provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "mysticism-med" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "mysticism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Meister Eckhart", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/meister-eckhart/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "mysticism-med" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "neoplatonism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Bernard McGinn, The Foundations of Mysticism (Crossroad, 1991)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "mysticism-med" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "patristics", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Bernard McGinn, The Foundations of Mysticism (Crossroad, 1991)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "mysticism-med" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "sufism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Bernard McGinn, The Foundations of 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"https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/neo-kantianism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "neo-kantianism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "neo-pragmatism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "language", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "neo-pragmatism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "analytic", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Richard Rorty", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rorty/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "neo-pragmatism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "post-struct", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Richard Rorty", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rorty/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "source": "neo-pragmatism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "pragmatism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Richard Rorty", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rorty/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "constitutive", "source": "neo-pragmatism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "ethics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "neoconfucianism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "neoconfucianism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "buddhism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Zhu Xi", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/zhu-xi/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "neoconfucianism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "confucianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 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[ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Neoplatonism, introduction and §1 (the movement's deliberate absorption and creative harmonization of Plato and Aristotle into a new system)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/neoplatonism/" }, { "citation": "Porphyry, Life of Plotinus, §14 (Stoic and Peripatetic doctrines concealed in the Enneads)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "neoplatonism" }, { "type": "synthesizes", "target": "platonism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Neoplatonism, introduction and §1 (the movement's deliberate absorption and creative harmonization of Plato and Aristotle into a new system)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/neoplatonism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "neoplatonism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "ethics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "new-confucianism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": 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"source": "nominalism" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "medieval-realism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Medieval Problem of Universals", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/universals-medieval/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "nominalism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "ethics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "normative-ethics" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "distributive-justice", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia, chapter 7" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "nozickian-entitlement-theory" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "rawlsian-difference-principle", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974), ch. 7 §II, which argues against Rawls that no patterned principle can be maintained without violating the just transfers that produced a holding" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "distributive-justice", "source": "nozickian-entitlement-theory" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "utilitarian-distribution", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974), ch. 7 §I, which rejects end-state principles, of which maximizing aggregate welfare is one, in favour of a purely historical criterion" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "distributive-justice", "source": "nozickian-entitlement-theory" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "language", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "ordinary-lang" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "logic", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "ordinary-lang" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "ordinary-language", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of 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"uses_method", "target": "ordinary-language-analysis", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Ordinary Language Philosophy, §§1 and 3", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/ord-lang/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "ordinary-lang" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "language-meaning", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Ordinary Language Philosophy, §§1 and 3", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/ord-lang/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "ordinary-language-analysis" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "language-meaning", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Theories of Meaning", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/meaning/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "ordinary-language" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "patristics" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "religion", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "patristics" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "theism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Augustine, On Free Choice of the Will, Book II (argument for the existence of God)" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "existence-of-god", "source": "patristics" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "neoplatonism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Augustine, Confessions VII.9 (the books of the Platonists)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "patristics" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "stoicism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Marcia Colish, The Stoic Tradition from Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages (Brill, 1985)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "patristics" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "zoroastrianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Mary Boyce, Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (Routledge, 1979)" } ], "uncertain": true, "uncertaintyNote": "The extent of direct Zoroastrian influence is contested; the parallels may reflect a shared Near Eastern milieu rather than borrowing.", "prominence": "background", "contextNote": "Zoroastrian eschatology, cosmic dualism, and angelology may have shaped early Christian thought through centuries of Persian–Jewish contact.", "source": "patristics" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "textual-exegesis", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Augustine, De doctrina christiana, III (rules for interpreting scripture)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "patristics" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "external-world", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Edmund Husserl, Ideas I, §§31–33 (the epoché and phenomenological reduction)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "phenomenological-method" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "mind", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Husserl, Ideas I" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "phenomenological-method" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "phenomenology" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "mind", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "phenomenology" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "empiricism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Edmund Husserl, The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology, Part II, §§23–24 (Hume as anticipating phenomenology)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "contextNote": "Husserl inherited the notion of intentionality from Brentano's descriptive psychology — itself rooted in the empiricist attention to experience — and transformed it into an a priori science of consciousness.", "source": "phenomenology" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "kantianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edmund Husserl", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/husserl/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "phenomenology" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "neo-kantianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Paul Natorp", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/natorp/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "phenomenology" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "phenomenological-method", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Husserl, Ideas I" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "phenomenology" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "phil-will" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "kantianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Arthur Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation, vol. 1 (1818), Appendix: 'Criticism of the Kantian Philosophy'" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Arthur Schopenhauer, §2", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/schopenhauer/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "constitutive", "contextNote": "Schopenhauer builds directly on Kant's distinction between appearance and thing-in-itself, keeping the distinction and identifying the thing-in-itself as Will. He set out the debt and the disagreement together in the Appendix to the first volume.", "source": "phil-will" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "mind-body", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Physicalism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/physicalism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "physicalism" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "substance-dualism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Physicalism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/physicalism/" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Dualism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "mind-body", "source": "physicalism" }, { "type": "specializes", "target": "materialism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Physicalism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/physicalism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "physicalism" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "universals", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Plato, Phaedo 74a–77a and 100c–e (the Equal itself and participation); Republic V, 475e–480a" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "platonic-realism" }, { "type": "specializes", "target": "realism-about-universals", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Plato, Republic and Phaedo" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "platonic-realism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "aesthetic", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "platonism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "platonism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "platonism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "political", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "platonism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "platonic-realism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Plato's Middle Period Metaphysics and Epistemology, §§1–6", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-metaphysics/" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "universals", "source": "platonism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "pythagorean", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Aristotle, Metaphysics A.6, 987a29–988a17 (Plato's debts to the Pythagoreans and to Heraclitean flux)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "platonism" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "sophism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Plato, Gorgias and Protagoras (critique of sophistic rhetoric and relativism)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "contextNote": "Plato's dialogues argue sustainedly against Sophistic relativism and rhetoric, defending objective truth and the good against 'man is the measure'.", "source": "platonism" }, { "type": "synthesizes", "target": "eleatic", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Differential Ontology, §1.c (Plato's deliberate fusion of Heraclitean and Parmenidean accounts in the theory of Forms)", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/differential-ontology/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "platonism" }, { "type": "synthesizes", "target": "heraclitean", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Differential Ontology, §1.c (Plato's deliberate fusion of Heraclitean and Parmenidean accounts in the theory of Forms)", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/differential-ontology/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "platonism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "socratic-method", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hugh H. Benson, “Socratic Method,” in The Cambridge Companion to Socrates (Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 179–200", "url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.008" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "platonism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "pluralists" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "nature", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "pluralists" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "eleatic", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "G. S. Kirk, J. E. Raven and M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers (2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1983)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "pluralists" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "milesians", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "G. S. Kirk, J. E. Raven and M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers (2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1983)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "pluralists" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "positivism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "science", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "positivism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "empiricism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Auguste Comte", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/comte/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "positivism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "language", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "post-struct" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "political", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "post-struct" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "marxism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Gary Gutting, French Philosophy in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge University Press, 2001)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "contextNote": "Adapted the Marxist analysis of ideology and power — via Althusser — while rejecting its economic determinism and totalizing philosophy of history.", "source": "post-struct" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "nihilist-current", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Gary Gutting, French Philosophy in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge University Press, 2001)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "source": "post-struct" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "phenomenology", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Gary Gutting, French Philosophy in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge University Press, 2001)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "source": "post-struct" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "structuralism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Gary Gutting, French Philosophy in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge University Press, 2001)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "constitutive", "source": "post-struct" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "genealogy", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Michel Foucault, §3.2", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/foucault/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "post-struct" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "postmodernism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "language", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "postmodernism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "post-struct", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Postmodernism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/postmodernism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "constitutive", "source": "postmodernism" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "truth-nature", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "C. S. Peirce, 'How to Make Our Ideas Clear' (1878), §§III–IV" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "pragmatic-inquiry" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "pragmatism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "pragmatist-truth", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "William James, Pragmatism (1907), Lecture VI" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "truth-nature", "contextNote": "James extended the pragmatic maxim into a theory of truth; it is one of the school's problem-specific positions, not the whole of Pragmatism.", "source": "pragmatism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "empiricism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "William James, Pragmatism (1907), Dedication to J. S. Mill and Lecture II" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "pragmatism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "kantianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "C. S. Peirce, 'What Pragmatism Is', The Monist 15 (1905), CP 5.412 (Kantian origin of 'pragmatic')" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "contextNote": "Peirce took the very word 'pragmatic' from Kant, and his system of categories and architectonic method are deeply indebted to the critical philosophy.", "source": "pragmatism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "transcendentalism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Transcendentalism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/transcendentalism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "source": "pragmatism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "abductive-reasoning", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "C. S. Peirce, 'Pragmatism as the Logic of Abduction' (1903), in The Essential Peirce, vol. 2" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "pragmatism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "pragmatic-inquiry", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Pragmatism, §§2.1 'The Pragmatic Maxim' and 4.2 'Inquiry'", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pragmatism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "pragmatism" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "truth-nature", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "William James, Pragmatism (1907), Lecture VI; C. S. Peirce, 'How to Make Our Ideas Clear' (1878)" } ], "uncertain": false, "contextNote": "On what truth is: truth is cashed out in practice — for Peirce, the opinion inquiry is fated to converge on; for James, the belief that proves useful and 'expedient' in leading us through experience.", "source": "pragmatist-truth" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "causality", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Nāgārjuna, Mūlamadhyamakakārikā I.1–14 (analysis of conditions and production)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "prasanga" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "self-existence", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Nāgārjuna, Mūlamadhyamakakārikā XVIII.1–6 (analysis of self and appropriation)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "prasanga" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "process-phil" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "nature", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "process-phil" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "process", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Process Philosophy", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/process-philosophy/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "process-phil" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "bergsonian-intuitionism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Process Philosophy", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/process-philosophy/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "process-phil" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "german-idealism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Process Philosophy", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/process-philosophy/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "contextNote": "Drew on Hegel's dialectical conception of becoming for a metaphysics in which reality is fundamentally process rather than static substance.", "source": "process-phil" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "platonism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Process Philosophy", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/process-philosophy/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "source": "process-phil" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "pragmatism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Process Philosophy", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/process-philosophy/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "source": "process-phil" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "logical-consequence", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Logical Consequence, §3.2", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-consequence/#ProoTheoAccoLogiCons" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "proof-theoretic-consequence" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "truth-nature", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Plato, Theaetetus 152a (the measure doctrine) and 166a–168c (the Defense of Protagoras)" } ], "uncertain": false, "contextNote": "On what truth is: there is no perspective-independent truth — as things appear to each judge, so they are for that judge, so a claim is only ever true for someone.", "source": "protagorean-relativism" }, { "type": "specializes", "target": "relativism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Relativism, §3 (Protagoras as the first overt champion of relativism)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/relativism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "protagorean-relativism" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "self-identity", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, II.xxvii (Of Identity and Diversity)" }, { "citation": "Derek Parfit, Reasons and Persons (Oxford University Press, 1984), Part Three" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "psychological-continuity" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "knowledge-possibility", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism I.8–10, 25–30" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Sextus Empiricus, §3.2", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sextus-empiricus/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "pyrrhonian-suspension-method" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "knowledge-possibility", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism I.8-10, 25-30" } ], "uncertain": false, "contextNote": "On whether we can know anything: because the arguments on any question of fact turn out to have equal force (isostheneia), assent is never warranted, so the skeptic suspends judgment and lives by appearances without holding beliefs about how things really are.", "source": "pyrrhonian-suspension" }, { "type": "specializes", "target": "skepticism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Ancient Skepticism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism-ancient/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "pyrrhonian-suspension" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "pyrrhonism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "pyrrhonian-suspension", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism I.8–10, 25–30" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "knowledge-possibility", "source": "pyrrhonism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "skepticism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism I.1–4" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "pyrrhonism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "atomism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers IX.61 (Pyrrho as pupil of the Democritean Anaxarchus)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "contextNote": "Drew on the Atomist emphasis on the unreliability of the senses; Pyrrho was a pupil of the Democritean Anaxarchus.", "source": "pyrrhonism" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "stoicism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism I.1–4 (the skeptics against the dogmatists)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "pyrrhonism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "pyrrhonian-suspension-method", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism I.8–10" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Sextus Empiricus, §3.2", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sextus-empiricus/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "pyrrhonism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "logic", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "pythagorean" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "pythagorean" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "rationalism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "rationalism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "epistemic-rationalism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Rationalism vs. Empiricism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "knowledge", "source": "rationalism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "substantial-self", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, Meditation II" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "self-existence", "source": "rationalism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "scholasticism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Roger Ariew, Descartes and the Late Scholastics (Cornell University Press, 1999)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "rationalism" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "pyrrhonism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, Meditation I; Richard H. Popkin, The History of Scepticism from Savonarola to Bayle (Oxford University Press, 2003)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "contextNote": "Descartes' methodic doubt confronted the revived Pyrrhonian skepticism head-on, pushing doubt to its limit to reach an indubitable foundation that would answer it.", "source": "rationalism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "deductive-reasoning", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "René Descartes, Rules for the Direction of the Mind, Rule III" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "rationalism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "methodic-doubt", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, Meditations I–II (AT VII 17–34)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "rationalism" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "distributive-justice", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "John Rawls, A Theory of Justice, §§11–17" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "rawlsian-difference-principle" }, { "type": "incompatible_with", "target": "utilitarian-distribution", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "John Rawls, A Theory of Justice, §5 and §30, which set out classical utilitarianism as the alternative justice as fairness rejects, on the ground that maximizing the aggregate does not respect the distinctness of persons" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "distributive-justice", "source": "rawlsian-difference-principle" }, { "type": "specializes", "target": "egalitarianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "John Rawls, A Theory of Justice, §§12-13, which names the principle 'democratic equality' and grounds it in the moral arbitrariness of the natural and social distribution of advantage" }, { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Egalitarianism, §3.1 (the difference principle as a leading egalitarian distributive criterion)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/egalitarianism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "rawlsian-difference-principle" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Plato, Republic and Phaedo; Aristotle, Metaphysics" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "realism-about-universals" }, { "type": "specializes", "target": "realism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Plato, Republic and Phaedo; Aristotle, Metaphysics" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "realism-about-universals" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "realism" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "change-being", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Zeno's Paradoxes, §1.1", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/paradox-zeno/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "reductio-ad-absurdum" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "distributive-justice", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, John Rawls, §2.4", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rawls/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "reflective-equilibrium" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "relativism" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "science-demarcation", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Imre Lakatos, 'Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes' (1970), §1 and §3, which relocates the unit of appraisal from the single theory to the series and makes progress the criterion" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "research-programmes" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "aesthetic", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "romanticism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "nature", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "romanticism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "expression-theory-of-art", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "M. H. Abrams, The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition (Oxford University Press, 1953)" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "beauty-art", "source": "romanticism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "kantianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Isaiah Berlin, The Roots of Romanticism (Princeton University Press, 1999)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "source": "romanticism" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "suffering-origin", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Aṅguttara Nikāya 2.31 (serenity and insight as the two things to be developed)", "url": "https://suttacentral.net/an2.31/en/sujato" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "samatha" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "samkhya" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "mind", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "samkhya" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "vedic", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Gerald James Larson, Classical Sāṃkhya (Motilal Banarsidass, 1979)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "constitutive", "source": "samkhya" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "existence-of-god", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae I, q. 2, a. 3" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "scholastic-disputation" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "universals", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae I, q. 85, a. 1–2 (whether and how the intellect knows universals, argued in the objection–determination–reply form of the disputed question)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "scholastic-disputation" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Medieval Problem of Universals", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/universals-medieval/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "scholastic-realism" }, { "type": "specializes", "target": "realism-about-universals", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Medieval Problem of Universals", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/universals-medieval/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "scholastic-realism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "logic", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "scholasticism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "scholasticism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "religion", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "scholasticism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "moderate-realism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Thomas Aquinas, On Being and Essence" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "universals", "source": "scholasticism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "theism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, Part I, Question 2, Article 3 (the Five Ways)" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "existence-of-god", "source": "scholasticism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "aristotelianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Medieval Philosophy", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/medieval-philosophy/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "constitutive", "source": "scholasticism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "averroism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "scholasticism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "islamic-phil", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "scholasticism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "jewish-phil", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Maimonides", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/maimonides/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "contextNote": "Maimonides' Guide of the Perplexed shaped Aquinas's handling of faith and reason and of proofs for God's existence.", "source": "scholasticism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "patristics", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Medieval Philosophy", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/medieval-philosophy/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "scholasticism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "deductive-reasoning", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae I, q.2, a.3" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "scholasticism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "scholastic-disputation", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Literary Forms of Medieval Philosophy, §2.6 'Disputation, Quaestio, Quodlibetal Question'", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/medieval-literary/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "scholasticism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "syllogistic-analysis", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Medieval Theories of the Syllogism", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/medieval-syllogism/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "scholasticism" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "textual-exegesis", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Medieval Philosophy, §2 (the lectio on authoritative texts)", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/medieval-philosophy/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "scholasticism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "science-demarcation" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "science", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "science-demarcation" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "mind", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "self-existence" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "mind", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "self-identity" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "moral-standing-in-nature", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Moral Status of Animals, §1.4", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-animal/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "sentientist-moral-standing" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "skepticism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "ethics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "social-contract" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "political", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "social-contract" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "contractarianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Social Contract Theory", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/soc-cont/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "social-contract" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "machiavellianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Richard Tuck, Philosophy and Government 1572–1651 (Cambridge University Press, 1993)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "contextNote": "Took the realist account of power and self-interested human nature — sharpened by Machiavelli — as the pre-political condition the contract is designed to master, most directly in Hobbes.", "source": "social-contract" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "stoicism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Richard Tuck, Natural Rights Theories: Their Origin and Development (Cambridge University Press, 1979)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "social-contract" }, { "type": "uses_method", "target": "thought-experiment", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Social Contract Theory, discussion of the state of nature", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/soc-cont/" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "social-contract" }, { "type": "applied_to", "target": "normative-ethics", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Plato, Euthyphro 5d–11b (testing proposed definitions of piety)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "socratic-method" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "socratic-method" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "ethics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "socratic-method" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "epistemology", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "sophism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "language", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "sophism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "relativism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Plato, Theaetetus 152a (Protagoras' measure doctrine)" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "sophism" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "eleatic", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Gorgias, On Not-Being (On Nature); Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Gorgias", "url": "https://iep.utm.edu/gorgias/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "contextNote": "Gorgias' On Not-Being turned rigorous Eleatic argument against Parmenides' conclusions — that nothing is, that if it is it cannot be known, and that if known it cannot be communicated.", "source": "sophism" }, { "type": "answers", "target": "language-meaning", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "H. 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Grice, 'Meaning', Philosophical Review 66 (1957), which analyses what an utterance means in terms of the speaker's intention to produce a belief in an audience by way of that audience recognising the intention" } ], "uncertain": false, "source": "speaker-meaning" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "speculative-realism" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "kantianism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Graham Harman, Speculative Realism: An Introduction (Polity, 2018)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "contextNote": "Rejects correlationism — the post-Kantian thesis that we can only think the correlation of thought and being, never the world in itself — seeking access to a mind-independent reality.", "source": "speculative-realism" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "phenomenology", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Graham Harman, Speculative Realism: An Introduction (Polity, 2018)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "speculative-realism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "spinozism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "religion", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "spinozism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "jewish-phil", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Baruch Spinoza", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "background", "contextNote": "Spinoza studied Maimonides' Guide of the Perplexed closely, absorbing its rationalist theology even as he pushed past it to identify God with Nature.", "source": "spinozism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "rationalism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Baruch Spinoza", "url": "https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "constitutive", "contextNote": "Spinoza worked inside Descartes' programme before turning it against him, keeping the geometrical order of demonstration and the appeal to clear and distinct ideas while rejecting the plurality of substances they had been used to defend.", "source": "spinozism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "ethics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "stoicism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "logic", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "stoicism" }, { "type": "belongs_to_domain", "target": "metaphysics", "provenance": "legacy", "sources": [], "uncertain": false, "source": "stoicism" }, { "type": "holds_position", "target": "virtue-ethics", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Epictetus, Enchiridion" } ], "uncertain": false, "problemId": "normative-ethics", "source": "stoicism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "cynicism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers VII.2–4 (Zeno's apprenticeship under Crates the Cynic)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "stoicism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "heraclitean", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "A. A. Long, Hellenistic Philosophy: Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics (2nd ed., University of California Press, 1986)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "stoicism" }, { "type": "influenced_by", "target": "platonism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers VII.1–4 (Zeno's studies in the Academy under Polemo)" } ], "uncertain": false, "prominence": "substantial", "source": "stoicism" }, { "type": "reacts_to", "target": "epicureanism", "provenance": "curated", "sources": [ { "citation": "A. A. 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